Cited by 3,010Social Power and Status DynamicsJob Satisfaction and Organizational BehaviorSocial and Intergroup Psychology

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What Should Be Done with Equity Theory?

Leventhal, Gerald S.·1980·Social Exchange

DOI 10.1007/978-1-4613-3087-5_2

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“To operationalize procedural justice, we varied the consistency of the punishment system (Leventhal, 1980).”
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“Fairness judgments greatly depend on both the procedures used (cf. Leventhal, 1980; Thibaut & Walker, 1975) and the interpersonal treatment afforded individuals during layoff implementation (cf. Bies & Moag, 1986; Tyler & Bies, 1990).”
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“Leventhal (1980) went further to identify six dimensions of procedural justice and some of these are representation (opportunity given to a party affected by a decision to be involved in decision making), consistency (similarity of treat-ment), the ability to suppress biases (prevention of…”
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“…also investigated the boundary conditions for these types of rewards (Malik et al., 2015; Yoon et al., 2015); however, procedural justice—fairness related to decision-making processes (Leventhal, 1980)—has been largely absent in research on rewards’ effects on intrinsic motivation and creativity.”
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The Indirect Effects of Servant Leadership Behavior on Organizational Citizenship Behavior and Job Performance
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“McClelland and Judd (1993) have, however, argued that these concerns do not apply to tests of moderation.”
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“…actions to be deemed procedurally just, individuals must perceive that authorities are being unbiased, provide individuals the opportunity to express their side of the story, and treat individuals with dignity and respect (Leventhal, 1980; Lind & Tyler, 1988; Sunshine & Tyler, 2003; Tyler, 2006).”
BackgroundMethod
Fairness, legitimacy and the regulation of home-sharing platforms
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“Based on the fact that this permanent ascription of inconsistent leadership violates the consistency rule (Leventhal, 1980), this narrative will necessarily include negative evaluations of the leader’s ethicality based on perceived unfairness and dishonesty.”
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Why Citizens Do and Do Not Attend Public Meetings about Local Cancer Cluster Investigations
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“Finally, research has shown that representativeness is a key criteria for evaluating fairness in decision making (Leventhal, 1980; Renn, Webler, & Kastenholz, 1996; Renn, Webler, & Wiedemann, 1995).”
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“Prior to 1980, the concept of procedural justice was introduced to the literature (see for example Thibaut & Walker, 1975), and during the 1980s, the concept was elaborated and evaluated (see for example Leventhal, 1980; Lind & Tyler, 1988).”
BackgroundMethod
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Dollar, C. B., Ray, B. R., Hudson, M. K., & Hood, B. J. (2018) · Behavioral Sciences & the Law · doi:10.1002/bsl.2329 · Cited by 45
“Leventhal (1980) similarly recognizes the importance of bias‐suppression and representativeness but identifies various other factors needed to promote perceptions of justice.”
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Sick and working: Current challenges and emerging directions for future presenteeism research
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“…2004), the innovation climate (Bare and Frese 2003), the ethical climate (Starratt 1991), the political climate (Romm and Drory 1988; Drory 1993), the justice climate (Leventhal 1980), the leadership climate (Chen and Bliese 2002) and the participative climate (Tjosvold 1985; Tesluk et al. 1999).”
Background
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“Based on Leventhal (1980) and Thibaut and Walker (1975), seven items were created to measure respondents' perceptions of procedural justice.”
Method
Principals' opinions of organisational justice in elementary schools in Turkey
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“Organisational justice Numerous studies have examined organisational justice (Greenberg, 1987, 1990a, b; Leventhal, 1980; Moorman, 1991; Skarlicki and Folger, 1997; Tyler, 1989; Coetzee, 2004; Özdevecioğlu, 2003; Cropanzano et al., 2002; Folger and Cropanzano, 1998).”
Background
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“According to Rubin (2009, drawing on Leventhal, 1980), formal procedures are consistent, unbiased, ethical and accurate in nature.”
Background
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“Leventhal (1980) originally defined this aspect of procedure as a rule that “ . . . dictates that all phases of the . . . process must reflect the basic concerns, values, and outlook of important subgroups in the population of individuals affected by the . . . process” (pp. 43-44).”
Background
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“…justice literature has similarly shown that the primary mechanism underlying participation’s effect on individual-level compliance operates through the effect that the opportunity to participate has on people’s perceptions of the rulemaking authority’s legitimacy (Leventhal 1980; Tyler 1990).”
Background
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“Moreover, procedural justice ensures that the procedures and criteria used in making and executing decisions are unbiased, representative, transparent, and correctable (Leventhal 1980), which is conducive for effective cooperation between firms.”
Background
The Effects of Procedural Justice on Cooperation and Compliance among Inmates in a Work Release Program
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“…justice more than four decades ago, a substantial body of research has confirmed its effects on a variety of key outcomes, including people’s decisions about whether to obey the law or cooperate with legal authorities (Leventhal, 1980; Tyler, 2006; Tyler & Huo, 2002; Tyler & Folger, 1980).”
Background
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“Other researchers (Leventhal, 1980; Leventhal, Karuza, & Fry, 1980) extended the notion of procedural justice into non-legal contexts.”
Background
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“For example, voice and process control (Thibaut and Walker 1975), as well as different justice rules such as accuracy of the information and consistency of the rule determining the outcomes (Leventhal 1980), were examined vis-à-vis procedural justice.”
BackgroundInfluential
Confirmatory factor analysis of the equity preference questionnaire
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“Multiple criteria for evaluating the justice of procedures have been suggested by Leventhal (1980): consistency (equal treatment across persons and over time); bias suppression (refraining from self-interest and preconceptions); accuracy (using all correct information available); correctability…”
BackgroundMethod
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Nosworthy, G. J., Lea, J., & Lindsay, R. C. L. (1995) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1995.tb02394.x · Cited by 38
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“Last but not least, the opportunity to reconsider decisions is perceived as an important determinant of perceived justice within procedural justice theory (Leventhal, 1980).”
Background
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“The underlying premise is that the provision of information serves to increase the transparency of the test process, which, in turn, enhances perceptions of test-taker fairness and motivation (Gilliland, 1993; Leventhal, 1980; Ployhart, Ziegert, & McFarland, 2003).”
Background
Multifoci effects of injustice on counterproductive work behaviors and the moderating roles of symbolization and victim sensitivity
Lavelle, J. J., Harris, C. M., Rupp, D. E., Herda, D. N., Young, R. F., Hargrove, M. B., Thornton-Lugo, M. A., & McMahan, G. C. (2018) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.2280 · Cited by 37
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Social Comparison and Social Exchange in Marital Relationships
VanYperen, N. W., & Buunk, B. P. (1994) · Critical issues in social justice · doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-0984-8_5 · Cited by 37
Applying equity theory to staff working with individuals with intellectual disabilities
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“The theory’s assumption that individuals rely upon equity (or contribution) based evaluations to determine fairness has also been questioned (Leventhal, 1980).”
Background
Status characteristics and reward expectations: A test of a theory of justice in two cultures
Fişek, M. H., & Hysom, S. J. (2008) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2007.10.005 · Cited by 40
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Implementing Business Process Reengineering
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Trouble at the next level: Effects of differential leader–member exchange on group-level processes and justice climate
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“Variation in voice is also more likely to be seen as violating the consistency norm of procedural justice (Colquitt et al., 2002; Leventhal, 1980) by lower-level LMX followers and more likely to be attributed to leader bias (cf. Sias and Jablin, 1995), which would likely negatively affect the…”
Background
Pay level satisfaction and employee outcomes: the moderating effect of autonomy and support climates
Schreurs, B. H. J., Guenter, H., van Emmerik, I. H., Notelaers, G., & Schumacher, D. (2014) · The International Journal of Human Resource Management · doi:10.1080/09585192.2014.940992 · Cited by 43
“…throwing money at the problem may still not solve the problem: granting a pay raise to some employees but not to others is seen as a serious violation of procedural justice (Leventhal, 1980; Leventhal, Karuza, & Fry, 1980), and may generate negative responses in those who have been disregarded.”
Background
Examining the Influence of Team Project Design Decisions on Student Perceptions and Evaluations of Instructors
Kidder, D. L., & Bowes‐Sperry, L. (2012) · Academy of Management Learning and Education · doi:10.5465/amle.2010.0040 · Cited by 37
Macrojustice
Kolm, S. (2004) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511510939 · Cited by 37
Do Race and Ethnicity Matter? An Examination of Racial/Ethnic Differences in Perceptions of Procedural Justice and Recidivism Among Problem-Solving Court Clients
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“Over the years, researchers have explored what it means to be treated in a procedurally just manner (Leventhal, 1980; Thibaut & Walker, 1975; Tyler, 2006).”
Background
Behavioral Agency Model and Corporate Social Irresponsibility: Uncovering the Implication of Fairness in CEO Compensation
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Fischer, R. D. (2013) · Cross-Cultural Research · doi:10.1177/1069397112470424 · Cited by 40
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“In particular, procedural justice focuses on the idea of instrumentality [13]–[15], distributive justice relates to equity [16] and interactional justice focuses on the nature of engagement [17].”
Background
Fair project governance: An organisational justice approach to project governance
Unterhitzenberger, C., & Moeller, D. (2021) · International Journal of Project Management · doi:10.1016/j.ijproman.2021.06.003 · Cited by 43
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Do Unfair Procedures Predict Employees’ Ethical Behavior by Deactivating Formal Regulations?
Zoghbi-Manrique-de-Lara, P. (2010) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-009-0273-z · Cited by 49
Does Fairness Matter More to Some than to Others? The Moderating Role of Workplace Status on The Relationship Between Procedural Fairness Perceptions and Job Satisfaction
Diekmann, K. A., Sondak, H., & Barsness, Z. I. (2007) · Social Justice Research · doi:10.1007/s11211-007-0036-x · Cited by 35
Equal Opportunity Perceptions and Job Attitudes
Witt, L. A. (1991) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.1991.9713869 · Cited by 37
WILL WE MEET AGAIN? EFFECTS OF POWER, DISTRIBUTION NORMS, AND SCOPE OF FUTURE INTERACTION IN SMALL GROUP NEGOTIATION
Mannix, E. A. (1994) · International Journal of Conflict Management · doi:10.1108/eb022751 · Cited by 34
Towards a holistic understanding of human motivation: core values?the entrance to people's commitment?
Dahlgaard, S. M. P., & Dahlgaard, J. J. (2003) · AI & Society · doi:10.1007/s00146-003-0257-y · Cited by 35
“Leventhal (1980), Cohen (1985) and Lind and Tyler (1988) indicate that procedural fairness and procedural justice in the decision-making process are associated with increased motivation and commitment towards the decisions made among employees.”
Background
Relations between OCBs, organizational justice, work motivation and self-efficacy
Oren, L., Tziner, A. E., Nahshon, Y., & Sharoni, G. (2013) · RePEc: Research Papers in Economics · Cited by 35
Does Organizational Justice Modify the Association Between Job Involvement and Retirement Intentions of Nurses in Finland?
Sulander, J., Sinervo, T. S., Elovainio, M. J., Heponiemi, T., Helkama, K., & Aalto, A. (2016) · Research in Nursing & Health · doi:10.1002/nur.21740 · Cited by 35
Human resource differentiation: A theoretical paper integrating co‐workers' perspective and context
Rofcanın, Y., Berber, A., Marescaux, E., Bal, P. M., Mughal, F., & Fındıklı, M. A. (2018) · Human Resource Management Journal · doi:10.1111/1748-8583.12224 · Cited by 35
“…climate perceptions highlights a key contextual element because co‐workers may react either positively or negatively depending on the extent towhich rules are followed fairly (Leventhal, 1980), and communication has been transparent (Greenberg, 1990) during the HR differentiation process.”
Background
Justice organisationnelle et politiques de diversité : une esquisse de réflexion managériale sous le prisme lévinassien
Bruna, M. G., Yanat, Z., & Tchankam, J. (2018) · Question(s) de management · doi:10.3917/qdm.183.0083 · Cited by 35
Predicting turnover intention among auditors: Is WIPL a mediator?
Gim, G. C. W., & Ramayah, T. (2019) · Service Industries Journal · doi:10.1080/02642069.2019.1606214 · Cited by 38
“Leventhal (1980) conceptualised six procedural rules as a guide to implement fair and just procedures.”
Method
Procedural fairness enacted by societal actors increases social trust and social acceptance among ethnic minority members through the promotion of sense of societal belonging
Valcke, B., Hiel, A. V., Onraet, E., & Dierckx, K. (2020) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/jasp.12696 · Cited by 38
Fair participation—a Canadian perspective
Illsley, B. M. (2003) · Land Use Policy · doi:10.1016/s0264-8377(03)00024-3 · Cited by 35
Personal Value Orientation as a Moderator in the Relationships Between Perceived Organizational Justice and Its Hypothesized Consequences
Lipponen, J., Olkkonen, M., & Myyry, L. (2004) · Social Justice Research · doi:10.1023/b:sore.0000041294.68845.0f · Cited by 35
“Equity theory (e.g., Adams, 1963) assumes that an individual judge the fairness of his or her own or others’ rewards on the basis of an equity principle that dictates that persons with greater contributions should receive higher outcomes ( Leventhal, 1980 ).”
Background
The personality basis of justice: The five‐factor model as an integrative model of personality and procedural fairness effects on cooperation
Hiel, A. V., Cremer, D. D., & Stouten, J. (2008) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.691 · Cited by 34
“inaccuracy) of the procedure was used as a manipulation of procedural fairness (see, Leventhal, 1980). In Study 2, conducted in an organisational context, procedural fairness of supervisor and organisation was assessed through scales. The most marked result emerging from Studies 1 and 2 is the significant moderator ef…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
The Moderating Effect of Negative Affectivity in the Procedural Justice-Job Satisfaction Relation.
Irving, P. G., Coleman, D. F., & Bobocel, D. R. (2005) · Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement · doi:10.1037/h0087242 · Cited by 34
“Since the 1970s, researchers have examined the role of people’s perceptions of procedural justice, that is, the fairness of the process used to determine outcome distributions (e.g., Leventhal, 1980; Lind & Tyler, 1988; Thibaut & Walker, 1975).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
The Motivational Effects of Pay Fairness
Wu, X., Sturman, M. C., & Wang, C. (2013) · Cornell Hospitality Quarterly · doi:10.1177/1938965512471891 · Cited by 36
“Frequently mentioned attributes of fair procedures include consistency, ethics, bias suppression, accuracy, representativeness, and correctability (Leventhal 1980).”
Background

Authors: Leventhal, G. S.
Affiliations: Wayne State University (US)
Corresponding author: Leventhal, Gerald S.
ORCID: Leventhal, Gerald S.
Venue: Social Exchange
Publisher: Springer US
Published: 1980
Pages: 27-55
DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4613-3087-5_2
OpenAlex: W1526225581
Cited by: 3,010
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 130 · 2025: 109 · 2024: 114 · 2023: 122 · 2022: 168 · 2021: 157 · 2020: 153 · 2019: 124 · 2018: 137 · 2017: 133 · 2016: 124 · 2015: 114 · 2014: 120 · 2013: 93 · 2012: 129
FWCI: 16.34
Type: book chapter
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Springer eBooks (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social Power and Status Dynamics
Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management › Job Satisfaction and Organizational Behavior
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Keywords: equity theory, reward allocation, resource allocation, social systems, organizational justice, punishment

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