Cited by 3,010Social Power and Status DynamicsJob Satisfaction and Organizational BehaviorSocial and Intergroup Psychology

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What Should Be Done with Equity Theory?

Leventhal, Gerald S.·1980·Social Exchange

DOI 10.1007/978-1-4613-3087-5_2

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“…outcome of exchange (Adams 1965; Deutsch 1975); procedural justice, which involves the means by which decisions are made and conflicts are resolved (Leventhal 1980; Lind and Tyler 1988; Thibaut and Walker 1975); and interactional justice, which involves the manner in which information is exchanged…”
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“Leventhal (1980) provided a comprehensive model of procedurally fair structural characteristics when he noted that fair procedures include input from all affected parties, are consistently applied, suppress bias, are as accurate as possible, are correctable (eg, provide for appeals), and are ethical.”
Research in Organizational Behavior: An Annual Series of Analytical Essays and Critical Reviews
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“Deutsch (1975) and Leventhal (1976; 1980) made important conceptual contributions to the issue of procedural justice in allocation situations.”
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The role of overall justice judgments in organizational justice research: A test of mediation.
Ambrose, M. L., & Schminke, M. J. (2009) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0013203 · Cited by 880
“For example, Leventhal’s (Leventhal, 1980; Leventhal, Karuza, & Fry, 1980) seminal work on procedural justice framed procedural and distributive rules as the foundation of overall justice judgments. Lind and Tyler’s (1988) work also acknowledged distributive and procedural justice as components of overall justice in n…”
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“…outcomes they receive (distributive justice [DJ]; Adams, 1965), the fairness of the procedures that lead to those outcomes (procedural justice [PJ]; Leventhal, 1980; Thibaut & Walker, 1975), and the interpersonal treatment bestowed in the delivery of said procedures (interactional justice [IJ];…”
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Interactional fairness judgments: The influence of causal accounts
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“a favorable outcome (Leventhal, 1980) or an equitable outcome”
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“Thibaut and Walker (1975) argued that influence was a vital component of procedural justice, and Leventhal (1980) argued that procedures should be representative of employees’ views and opinions.”
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A Restatement of the Satisfaction-Performance Hypothesis
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How fairness perceptions make innovative behavior more or less stressful
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The Impact of Justice Climate and Justice Orientation on Work Outcomes: A Cross-Level Multifoci Framework.
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VOICE AND JUSTIFICATION: THEIR INFLUENCE ON PROCEDURAL FAIRNESS JUDGMENTS.
Bies, R. J., & Shapiro, D. L. (1988) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.2307/256465 · Cited by 579
Accounting for Organizational Citizenship Behavior: Leader Fairness and Task Scope versus Satisfaction
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“Distributive justice is the particular method of resource distribution that is accepted by group members (Leventhal, 1976, 1980).”
Method
Justice as a Mediator of the Relationship Between Methods of Monitoring and Organizational Citizenship Behavior
Niehoff, B. P., & Moorman, R. H. (1993) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.5465/256591 · Cited by 541
The Knowledge, Skill, and Ability Requirements for Teamwork: Implications for Human Resource Management
Stevens, M. J., & Campion, M. A. (1994) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/014920639402000210 · Cited by 538
“Few studies have investigated the effects of workload distribution strategies (Dyer, 1984), but motivation theories suggest that equity must be considered when making workload assignments in a team (Adams, 1965; Leventhal, 1980).”
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Reactions to procedural injustice in payment distributions: Do the means justify the ends?
Greenberg, J. (1987) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.72.1.55 · Cited by 548
Organization structure as a moderator of the relationship between procedural justice, interactional justice, perceived organizational support, and supervisory trust.
Ambrose, M. L., & Schminke, M. J. (2003) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.88.2.295 · Cited by 550
When do we need procedural fairness? The role of trust in authority.
van den Bos, K., Wilke, H., & Lind, E. A. (1998) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.75.6.1449 · Cited by 535
“Answering this question is of crucial importance for any theory about justice (Leventhal, 1980), and therefore we focus on this question in the present article.”
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A Four-Component Model of Procedural Justice: Defining the Meaning of a “Fair” Process
Blader, S. L., & Tyler, T. R. (2003) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167203029006007 · Cited by 511
“For instance, Leventhal (1980) specified six criteria of fair 747 Authors’ Note: Steven Blader is now at the Stern School of Business, New York University.”
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“Leventhal (1980) describes fairness as equal treatment based on people’s performance and needs.”
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An Exploration of How the Employee–Organization Relationship Affects the Linkage Between Perception of Developmental Human Resource Practices and Employee Outcomes*
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Beyond Deterrence: An Expanded View of Employee Computer Abuse1
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“Leventhal and his colleagues ( Leventhal 1980 ; Leventhal et al .”
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Why managers should care about fairness: The effects of aggregate justice perceptions on organizational outcomes.
Simons, T. L., & Roberson, Q. M. (2003) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.88.3.432 · Cited by 474
“Re- searchers have offered several different typologies for and operationalizations of procedural justice (Leventhal, 1980; Thibaut & Walker, 1975).”
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ORGANIZATION-MOTIVATED AGGRESSION: A RESEARCH FRAMEWORK
O’Leary-Kelly, A. M., Griffin, R. W., & Glew, D. J. (1996) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.1996.9602161571 · Cited by 517
Three roads to organizational justice
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Conditions leading to value-expressive effects in judgments of procedural justice: A test of four models.
Tyler, T. R. (1987) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.52.2.333 · Cited by 452
Differentiating the effects of status and power: A justice perspective.
Blader, S. L., & Chen, Y.-R. (2012) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0026651 · Cited by 427
Alternative Approaches to the Employee-Organization Relationship: Does Investment in Employees Pay Off?
Tsui, A. S. Y., Pearce, J. L., Porter, L. W., et al. (1997) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.5465/256928 · Cited by 427
Justice strategy options for increased customer satisfaction in a services recovery setting
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Procedural Justice and Legal Compliance
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The Influence of Control on Belief in Conspiracy Theories: Conceptual and Applied Extensions
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“…increase their moral authority are being transparent about their motivations for important decisions (Brockner, DeWitt, Grover, & Reed, 1990; Folger & Martin, 1986), and closely adhering to procedural justice principles (Leventhal, 1980), as these factors are known to support feelings of control.”
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Presumed fair: Ironic effects of organizational diversity structures.
Kaiser, C. R., Major, B., Jurcevic, I., Dover, T. L., Brady, L. M., & Shapiro, J. R. (2013) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0030838 · Cited by 405
Organizational Citizenship Behavior in Schools and Its Relationship to School Climate
DiPaola, M. F., & Tschannen‐Moran, M. (2001) · Journal of School Leadership · doi:10.1177/105268460101100503 · Cited by 398
How management style moderates the relationship between abusive supervision and workplace deviance: An uncertainty management theory perspective
Thau, S., Bennett, R. J., Mitchell, M. S., & Marrs, M. B. (2008) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2008.06.003 · Cited by 409
Using socially fair treatment to promote acceptance of a work site smoking ban.
Greenberg, J. (1994) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.79.2.288 · Cited by 382
Are We Family and Are We Treated as Family? Nonfamily Employees’ Perceptions of Justice in the Family Firm
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The Principles and Limits of Algorithm-in-the-Loop Decision Making
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“For example, the principle of procedural justice requires that decisions be (among other things) accurate, fair, consistent, correctable, and ethical [55].”
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Solving the equity–equality conceptual dilemma: a new model for analysis of the educational process
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“Hence, fairness is judged in terms of the procedure’s consistency, prevention of personal bias and its representativeness of important subgroups (Deutsch, 1975; Leventhal, 1980).”
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Illegitimate tasks as a source of work stress
Semmer, N. K., Jacobshagen, N., Meier, L. L., Elfering, A., Beehr, T. A., Kälin, W., & Tschan, F. (2015) · Work & Stress · doi:10.1080/02678373.2014.1003996 · Cited by 404
Procedural Justice, Attitudes, and Subsidiary Top Management Compliance with Multinationals' Corporate Strategic Decisions
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The Independent and Interactive Roles of Procedural, Distributive, and Interactional Justice in Strategic Alliances
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It's Not Fair … Or Is It? The Role of Justice and Leadership in Explaining Work Stressor–Job Performance Relationships
Zhang, Y., LePine, J. A., Buckman, B. R., & Wei, F. (2013) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.5465/amj.2011.1110 · Cited by 382
VOICE, CONTROL, AND BELONGING: The Double-Edged Sword of Procedural Fairness
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“Although the first two dimensions were included in an earlier list of procedural desiderata (Leventhal, 1980), the third factor – standing – is the most distinctive contribution of their models.”
Background
Implementing global strategies: The role of procedural justice
Kim, W. C., & Mauborgne, R. A. (1991) · Strategic Management Journal · doi:10.1002/smj.4250120910 · Cited by 327
The effect of organizational structure on perceptions of procedural fairness.
Schminke, M. J., Ambrose, M. L., & Cropanzano, R. (2000) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.85.2.294 · Cited by 349
“Leventhal (1980; Leventhal, Karuza, & Fry, 1980) identified six rules by which individuals assess the fairness of procedures: consistency, bias suppression, representativeness, correctability, accuracy, and ethicality.”
Background
Justice, Fairness, and Employee Reactions
Colquitt, J. A., & Zipay, K. P. (2015) · Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032414-111457 · Cited by 376
“In his seminal writings on justice, Leventhal argued that fairness perceptions are formed through a cognitively rich process in which employees decide what justice rules to consider and howmuch toweigh them (e.g., Leventhal 1980, Leventhal et al. 1980).”
BackgroundInfluential
Indigenous and Cultural Psychology
Kim, U., Yang, K., & Hwang, K. (2006) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/0-387-28662-4 · Cited by 331
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Hwang, K. (2000) · Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour · doi:10.1111/1468-5914.00124 · Cited by 322
Procedural justice, legitimacy, and prisoner misconduct
Reisig, M. D., & Meško, G. (2009) · Psychology Crime and Law · doi:10.1080/10683160802089768 · Cited by 339
“Leventhal's ( 1980 ) work has also proved influential in understanding citizens’ fairness judgements of legal procedures.”
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Nurturing regulatory compliance: Is procedural justice effective when people question the legitimacy of the law?
Murphy, K., Tyler, T. R., & Curtis, A. (2009) · Regulation & Governance · doi:10.1111/j.1748-5991.2009.01043.x · Cited by 313
Survivor reactions to reorganization: Antecedents and consequences of procedural, interpersonal, and informational justice.
Kernan, M. C., & Hanges, P. J. (2002) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.87.5.916 · Cited by 351
“Presumably, employees who are allowed input will have a better opportunity to ensure that fair procedures are followed (e.g., standards applied consistently, accurate information is used), thereby enhancing procedural justice perceptions (Leventhal, 1980).”
BackgroundMethod
To Thine Own Self Be True? Employees’ Judgments of the Authenticity of Their Organization’s Corporate Social Responsibility Program
McShane, L., & Cunningham, P. H. (2011) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-011-1064-x · Cited by 306
“Processes are said to be fair to the extent that they demonstrate consistency, bias suppression, accuracy, correctability, representativeness, and ethicality (Levanthal 1980).”
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Fairness perceptions of algorithmic decision-making: A systematic review of the empirical literature
Starke, C., Baleis, J., Keller, B., & Marcinkowski, F. (2022) · Big Data & Society · doi:10.1177/20539517221115189 · Cited by 316
“Second, procedural fairness indicates that decision-making is based on fair criteria, such as revocability or consistency (Leventhal, 1980).”
Background
Managerial responsibilities and procedural justice
Folger, R. G., & Bies, R. J. (1989) · Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal · doi:10.1007/bf01384939 · Cited by 298
Procedural justice as a criterion in allocation decisions.
Barrett-Howard, E., & Tyler, T. R. (1986) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.50.2.296 · Cited by 303
Understanding the co-creation effect: when does collaborating with customers provide a lift to service recovery?
Roggeveen, A. L., Tsiros, M., & Grewal, D. (2011) · Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science · doi:10.1007/s11747-011-0274-1 · Cited by 319
Justice, Cynicism, and Commitment
Bernerth, J. B., Armenakis, A. A., Feild, H. S., & Walker, H. J. (2007) · The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science · doi:10.1177/0021886306296602 · Cited by 332
The antecedents of customer satisfaction and its link to complaint intentions in online shopping: An integration of justice, technology, and trust
Wu, I. (2012) · International Journal of Information Management · doi:10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2012.09.001 · Cited by 325
“Leventhal (1980) first discussed procedural justice in non-legal contexts, such as organizational settings, and identified six evaluation criteria for perceived procedural fairness.”
Background
Procedural Justice, Police Legitimacy, and Helping the Police Fight Crime
Reisig, M. D., & Lloyd, C. (2008) · Police Quarterly · doi:10.1177/1098611108327311 · Cited by 301
An employee-centered model of organizational justice and social responsibility
Rupp, D. E. (2011) · Organizational Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/2041386610376255 · Cited by 318
“One perspective within this domain has a revivalist flare to it (see Leventhal, 1980; Leventhal, Karuza, & Fry, 1980; Lind & Tyler, 1988).”
Background
When organizational justice and the self-concept meet: Consequences for the organization and its members
Johnson, R. E., Selenta, C., & Lord, R. G. (2005) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2005.07.005 · Cited by 286
“Procedural justice involves the extent to which employees perceive the system that determines pay and other work outcomes as being fair (e.g., accurate, representative, and free from bias; Leventhal, 1980; Thibaut & Walker, 1975).”
Background
Classroom justice: Perceptions of fairness as a predictor of student motivation, learning, and aggression
Chory‐Assad, R. M. (2002) · Communication Quarterly · doi:10.1080/01463370209385646 · Cited by 286
“Similarly, communication accuracy, timeliness, and completeness (Cropanzano & Greenberg, 1997; Leventhal, 1980) have been shown to predict increased motivation in organizational settings (Orpen, 1997), suggesting the fairness-motivation connection.”
BackgroundResult
LEADERSHIP TRAINING IN ORGANIZATIONAL JUSTICE TO INCREASE CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOR WITHIN A LABOR UNION: A REPLICATION
Skarlicki, D. P., & Latham, G. P. (1997) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1997.tb00707.x · Cited by 296
Groups at Work
(2014) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315805986 · Cited by 288
Integrating Justice and Social Exchange: The Differing Effects of Fair Procedures and Treatment on Work Relationships
Masterson, S. S., Lewis, K., Goldman, B. M., et al. (2000) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.5465/1556364 · Cited by 283
“Later, Leventhal (1980) identified six justice rules (accuracy, representativeness, bias suppression, consistency, ethicality, and correctability) thought to be used by individuals in judging the fairness of procedures.”
Background
Friends Without Benefits: Understanding the Dark Sides of Workplace Friendship
Pillemer, J., & Rothbard, N. P. (2018) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.2016.0309 · Cited by 319

Authors: Leventhal, G. S.
Affiliations: Wayne State University (US)
Corresponding author: Leventhal, Gerald S.
ORCID: Leventhal, Gerald S.
Venue: Social Exchange
Publisher: Springer US
Published: 1980
Pages: 27-55
DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4613-3087-5_2
OpenAlex: W1526225581
Cited by: 3,010
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 130 · 2025: 109 · 2024: 114 · 2023: 122 · 2022: 168 · 2021: 157 · 2020: 153 · 2019: 124 · 2018: 137 · 2017: 133 · 2016: 124 · 2015: 114 · 2014: 120 · 2013: 93 · 2012: 129
FWCI: 16.34
Type: book chapter
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Springer eBooks (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social Power and Status Dynamics
Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management › Job Satisfaction and Organizational Behavior
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Keywords: equity theory, reward allocation, resource allocation, social systems, organizational justice, punishment

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