The DOI matches its Crossref record; 5 of the 5 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
A General Linear Model for Estimating Effect Size in the Presence of Publication Bias
Abstract
When the process of publication favors studies with small p-values, and hence large effect estimates, combined estimates from many studies may be biased. This paper describes a model for estimation of effect size when there is selection based on one-tailed p-values. The model employs the method of maximum likelihood in the context of a mixed (fixed and random) effects general linear model for effect sizes. It offers a test for the presence of publication bias, and corrected estimates of the parameters of the linear model for effect magnitude. The model is illustrated using a well-known data set on the benefits of psychotherapy.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Publication bias in clinical research
Easterbrook, P. J., Gopalan, R., Berlin, J. A., & Matthews, D. R. (1991) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/0140-6736(91)90201-y · Cited by 3,109
Consequences of prejudice against the null hypothesis.
Greenwald, A. G. (1975) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/h0076157 · Cited by 1,022
Sterling, T. D. (1959) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.1080/01621459.1959.10501497 · Cited by 964
Modeling Publication Selection Effects in Meta-Analysis
Hedges, L. V. (1992) · Statistical Science · doi:10.1214/ss/1177011364 · Cited by 359
Self-citationHedges, L. V. (1984) · Journal of Educational Statistics · doi:10.3102/10769986009001061 · Cited by 241
Self-citation
Cited by
A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory.
Pettigrew, T. F., & Tropp, L. R. (2006) · Journal of personality and social psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.90.5.751 · Cited by 9,708
The Handbook of Research Synthesis and Meta-Analysis
(2019) · doi:10.7758/9781610448864 · Cited by 4,553
Quantitative Synthesis in Systematic Reviews
Lau, J., Ioannidis, J. P. A., & Schmid, C. H. (1997) · Annals of Internal Medicine · doi:10.7326/0003-4819-127-9-199711010-00008 · Cited by 2,517
Investigating and dealing with publication and other biases in meta-analysis
Sterne, J. A. C., Egger, M., & Smith, G. D. (2001) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.323.7304.101 · Cited by 2,225
GRADE guidelines: 5. Rating the quality of evidence—publication bias
Guyatt, G. H., Oxman, A. D., Montori, V., Vist, G., Kunz, R., Brozek, J., Alonso-Coello, P., Djulbegovic, B., Atkins, D., Falck-Ytter, Y., et al. (2011) · Journal of Clinical Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.jclinepi.2011.01.011 · Cited by 1,819
Dissemination and publication of research findings: an updated review of related biases
Song, F., Parekh, Hooper, L., Loke, Y., Ryder, J., Sutton, A., Hing, C., Kwok, C., Pang, C., & Harvey, I. (2010) · Health Technology Assessment · doi:10.3310/hta14080 · Cited by 1,039
Linde, K., Clausius, N., Ramirez, G., Melchart, D., Eitel, F., Hedges, L. V., & Jonas, W. B. (1997) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(97)02293-9 · Cited by 979
Self-citationThe relationship between materialism and personal well-being: A meta-analysis
Dittmar, H., Bond, R., Hurst, M., & Kasser, T. (2014) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0037409 · Cited by 890
“Given the need for larger samples than we had available to use maximum-likelihood methods for estimation (Vevea & Hedges, 1995), we used a more recent approach (Vevea & Woods, 2005) whereby different weight functions are specified and then the model is estimated under each weight function.”
Adjusting for publication bias in the presence of heterogeneity
Terrin, N., Schmid, C. H., Lau, J., & Olkin, I. (2003) · Statistics in Medicine · doi:10.1002/sim.1461 · Cited by 809
An exploratory test for an excess of significant findings
Ioannidis, J. P., & Trikalinos, T. A. (2007) · Clinical Trials · doi:10.1177/1740774507079441 · Cited by 751
A meta-analysis of procedures to change implicit measures
Forscher, P. S., Lai, C. K., Axt, J. R., Ebersole, C. R., Herman, M., Devine, P. G., & Nosek, B. A. (2019) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspa0000160 · Cited by 700
Methodological guidance paper: High-quality meta- analysis in a systematic review
Pigott, T. D., & Polanin, J. R. (2020) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/0034654319877153 · Cited by 568
Siegel, E. H., Sands, M. K., Van den Noortgate, W., Condon, P., Chang, Y., Dy, J., Quigley, K. S., & Barrett, L. F. (2018) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000128 · Cited by 515
Publication Bias in Research Synthesis: Sensitivity Analysis Using A Priori Weight Functions.
Vevea, J. L., & Woods, C. M. (2005) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.10.4.428 · Cited by 461
Self-citationInvestigating and Dealing with Publication and Other Biases
Sterne, J. A. C., Egger, M., & Smith, G. D. (2001) · Systematic Reviews in Health Care · doi:10.1002/9780470693926.ch11 · Cited by 449
Publication and related biases.
Song, Eastwood, Gilbody, Duley, & Sutton (2000) · Health Technology Assessment · doi:10.3310/hta4100 · Cited by 427
McShane, B. B., Böckenholt, U., & Hansen, K. T. (2016) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691616662243 · Cited by 398
Methods for testing publication bias in ecological and evolutionary meta‐analyses
Nakagawa, S., Lagisz, M., Jennions, M. D., Koricheva, J., Noble, D. W. A., Parker, T. H., Sánchez‐Tójar, A., Yang, Y., & O'Dea, R. E. (2022) · Methods in Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.1111/2041-210x.13724 · Cited by 399
Evolution of Reporting P Values in the Biomedical Literature, 1990-2015
Chavalarias, D., Wallach, J. D., Li, A. H. T., & Ioannidis, J. P. A. (2016) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.2016.1952 · Cited by 370
Medication adherence outcomes of 771 intervention trials: Systematic review and meta-analysis
Conn, V. S., & Ruppar, T. M. (2017) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2017.03.008 · Cited by 367
“Publication bias was explored with funnel plots and Egger’s tests (Egger et al., 1997; Sterne et al., 2008; Sutton, 2009; Vevea and Hedges, 1995).”
MethodSensitivity Analysis for Publication Bias in Meta-Analyses
Mathur, M. B., & VanderWeele, T. J. (2020) · Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series C: Applied Statistics · doi:10.1111/rssc.12440 · Cited by 354
Testing for funnel plot asymmetry of standardized mean differences
Pustejovsky, J. E., & Rodgers, M. A. (2019) · Research Synthesis Methods · doi:10.1002/jrsm.1332 · Cited by 354
Modelling publication bias in meta-analysis: a review
Sutton, A. J., Song, F., Gilbody, S. M., & Abrams, K. R. (2000) · Statistical Methods in Medical Research · doi:10.1177/096228020000900503 · Cited by 288
Transfer of test- enhanced learning: meta-analytic review and synthesis
Pan, S. C., & Rickard, T. C. (2018) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000151 · Cited by 286
A tutorial on Bayes Factor Design Analysis using an informed prior
Stefan, A. M., Gronau, Q. F., Schönbrodt, F. D., & Wagenmakers, E.-J. (2019) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-018-01189-8 · Cited by 284
Comparing meta-analyses and preregistered multiple-laboratory replication projects
Kvarven, A., Strømland, E., & Johannesson, M. (2019) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-019-0787-z · Cited by 271
The Effects of Family Therapies for Adolescent Delinquency and Substance Abuse: A Meta‐analysis
Baldwin, S. A., Christian, S., Berkeljon, A., & Shadish, W. R. (2012) · Journal of Marital and Family Therapy · doi:10.1111/j.1752-0606.2011.00248.x · Cited by 244
The development of gender differences in spatial reasoning: A meta-analytic review.
Lauer, J. E., Yhang, E., & Lourenco, S. F. (2019) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000191 · Cited by 239
Conn, V. S., Hafdahl, A. R., Cooper, P. S., Ruppar, T. M., Mehr, D. R., & Russell, C. L. (2009) · The Gerontologist · doi:10.1093/geront/gnp037 · Cited by 227
The cognitive benefits of learning computer programming: A meta-analysis of transfer effects.
Scherer, R., Siddiq, F., & Sánchez Viveros, B. (2019) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000314 · Cited by 205
Alnefeesi, Y., Chen-Li, D., Krane, E., Jawad, M. Y., Rodrigues, N. B., Ceban, F., Di Vincenzo, J. D., Meshkat, S., Ho, R. C. M., Gill, H., et al. (2022) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2022.04.037 · Cited by 186
A historical review of publication bias
Marks‐Anglin, A., & Chen, Y. (2020) · Research Synthesis Methods · doi:10.1002/jrsm.1452 · Cited by 165
Hilgard, J., Engelhardt, C. R., & Rouder, J. N. (2017) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000074 · Cited by 162
An umbrella review of randomized control trials on the effects of physical exercise on cognition
Ciria, L. F., Román-Caballero, R., Vadillo, M. A., Holgado, D., Luque-Casado, A., Perakakis, P., & Sanabria, D. (2023) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-023-01554-4 · Cited by 157
Shadish, W. R., Zelinsky, N. A. M., Vevea, J. L., & Kratochwill, T. R. (2016) · Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis · doi:10.1002/jaba.308 · Cited by 130
JOURNAL QUALITY, EFFECT SIZE, AND PUBLICATION BIAS IN META-ANALYSIS
Murtaugh, P. A. (2002) · Ecology · doi:10.1890/0012-9658(2002)083[1162:jqesap]2.0.co;2 · Cited by 126
Román-Caballero, R., Vadillo, M. A., Trainor, L. J., & Lupiáñez, J. (2022) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2022.100436 · Cited by 118
Conn, V. S., Koopman, R. J., Ruppar, T. M., Phillips, L. J., Mehr, D. R., & Hafdahl, A. R. (2014) · Journal of Primary Care & Community Health · doi:10.1177/2150131913520328 · Cited by 99
Meditation interventions efficiently reduce cortisol levels of at-risk samples: A meta-analysis
Koncz, A., Demetrovics, Z., & Takacs, Z. K. (2021) · Health Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/17437199.2020.1760727 · Cited by 94
A Review of Meta-Analysis Packages in R
Polanin, J. R., Hennessy, E. A., & Tanner-Smith, E. E. (2017) · Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics · doi:10.3102/1076998616674315 · Cited by 92
Morrison, A. E., Zaccardi, F., Khunti, K., & Davies, M. J. (2019) · Liver International · doi:10.1111/liv.13994 · Cited by 92
Beard, J. I. L., & Delgadillo, J. (2019) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.22931 · Cited by 81
Chang, P. G. R. Y., Delgadillo, J., & Waller, G. (2021) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102032 · Cited by 78
The sleep benefit in episodic memory: An integrative review and a meta-analysis.
Berres, S., & Erdfelder, E. (2021) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000350 · Cited by 74
Bryan, A. E. B., & Arkowitz, H. (2015) · American Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10464-015-9718-y · Cited by 67
Wang, F., Cheung, A. C. K., Neitzel, A. J., & Chai, C. S. (2025) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543241255621 · Cited by 64
Tutal, Ö., & Yazar, T. (2021) · Asia Pacific Education Review · doi:10.1007/s12564-021-09706-9 · Cited by 57
Meta-analysis, can it ever fail?
Kotiaho, J. S., & Tomkins, J. L. (2002) · Oikos · doi:10.1034/j.1600-0706.2002.960316.x · Cited by 52
Garrett, R., Citkowicz, M., & Williams, R. (2019) · Review of Research in Education · doi:10.3102/0091732x19830634 · Cited by 48
Wolf, B., & Harbatkin, E. (2023) · Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness · doi:10.1080/19345747.2022.2071364 · Cited by 45
Pfefferbaum, B., Nitiéma, P., & Newman, E. (2019) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.22391 · Cited by 41
Thomann, H., & Deutscher, V. (2025) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2025.100686 · Cited by 40
Power, E., Sabherwal, S., Healy, C., O’ Neill, A., Cotter, D., & Cannon, M. (2021) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291720005036 · Cited by 34
Has the evidence for moral licensing been inflated by publication bias?
Kuper, N., & Bott, A. (2019) · Meta-Psychology · doi:10.15626/mp.2018.878 · Cited by 30
Moran, T., Hughes, S., Hussey, I., Vadillo, M. A., Olson, M. A., Aust, F., Bading, K., Balas, R., Benedict, T., Corneille, O., et al. (2021) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797620968526 · Cited by 27
Are we truly special and unique? A replication of Goldenberg et al. (2001)
Rodríguez-Ferreiro, J., Barberia, I., González-Guerra, J., & Vadillo, M. A. (2019) · Royal Society Open Science · doi:10.1098/rsos.191114 · Cited by 19
Not Published Is Not Perished: Addressing Publication Bias in Meta-Analytic Studies in Communication
Sun, Y., & Pan, Z. (2020) · Human Communication Research · doi:10.1093/hcr/hqz015 · Cited by 18
Chen, L., Benjamin, R., Guo, Y., Lai, A., & Heine, S. J. (2023) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-1254756/v1 · Cited by 5
Yu, Y., Zhao, W., Li, A., Shanks, D. R., Hu, X., Luo, L., & Yang, C. (2025) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-025-10024-4 · Cited by 2
Xiao, Q., Li, L. C., Au, Y. L., Tan, S. N., Chung, W. T., & Feldman, G. (2024) · International Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.5334/irsp.945
Metadata
- Authors
- Vevea, J. L., & Hedges, L. V.
- Venue
- Psychometrika
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 1995-09
- Volume
- 60
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 419-435
- ISSN
- 0033-3123 (ISSN-L)
- 1860-0980
- OpenAlex
- W2028854990
- Cited by
- 413
- References
- 5
- FWCI
- 2.18
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
Data sources
Bibliographic data: Semantic Scholar, OpenAlex, Crossref.
Contains information from the Semantic Scholar Academic Graph Datasets, made available under the ODC Attribution License (ODC-BY 1.0).
Semantic Scholar’s data is described in: Kinney, R., et al. (2023). The Semantic Scholar Open Data Platform. arXiv:2301.10140.
