The sleep benefit in episodic memory: An integrative review and a meta-analysis.
Open accessAbstract
People recall more information after sleep than after an equally long period of wakefulness. This sleep benefit in episodic memory has been documented in almost a century of research. However, an integrative review of hypothesized underlying processes, a comprehensive quantification of the benefit, and a systematic investigation of potential moderators has been missing so far. Here, we address these issues by analyzing 823 effect sizes from 271 independent samples that were reported in 177 articles published between 1967 and 2019. Using multilevel metaregressions with robust variance estimates, we found a moderate overall sleep benefit in episodic memory (g = 0.44). Moderator analyses revealed four important findings: First, the sleep benefit is larger when stimuli are studied multiple times instead of just once. Second, for word materials, the effect size depends on the retrieval procedure: It is largest in free recall, followed by cued recall and recognition tasks. Third, the sleep benefit is stronger in pre-post difference measures of retention than in delayed memory tests. Fourth, sleep benefits are larger for natural sleep and nighttime naps than for alternative sleep study designs (e.g., slow-wave sleep; SWS-deprived sleep, daytime naps). Although there was no obvious evidence for selective reporting, it is a potential threat to the validity of the results. When accounting for selective reporting bias, the overall effect of sleep on episodic memory is reduced but still significant (g = 0.28). We argue that our results support an integrative, multicausal theoretical account of sleep-induced episodic memory benefits and provide guidance to increase their replicability. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
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In healthy younger adults, sleep compared with wakefulness consistently improves declarative memory consolidation.
“In healthy younger adults, sleep compared with wakefulness consistently improves declarative [14], episodic [14], emotional [26], prospective [24], and motor memory consolidation [28].”
From Sleep and memory consolidation in healthy, neurotypical children, and adults: a summary of systematic reviews and meta-analyses. (2023) · cites this paper as [14]
The Selection Criteria and age analysis (Parity Check Variables; page not given) support a sleep-versus-wake benefit for episodic memory in healthy adults, with most included studies involving young adults. But the Study Selection section says the meta-analysis specifically assessed episodic memory and excluded semantic-memory tasks. It therefore does not establish the claim for declarative memory broadly, and its average benefit does not mean improvement in every comparison. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredSleep has larger effects for emotional stimuli and direct retention measures.
“This review utilised multilevel meta-regression models to analyse a broad range of studies, revealing larger effects for emotional stimuli and direct retention measures.”
From Sleep and memory consolidation in healthy, neurotypical children, and adults: a summary of systematic reviews and meta-analyses. (2023) · cites this paper as [14]
The Statistical Analysis section describes a multilevel meta-analysis, and Parity Check Variables reports a significantly larger sleep benefit for direct retention measures than for delayed-test performance. Focal Variables reports a descriptively larger benefit for negative than for positive or neutral memories, but says the difference was not statistically significant. The claim presents that emotional-stimulus pattern more definitively than the paper does. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn healthy younger adults, sleep compared with wakefulness consistently improves episodic memory consolidation.
“In healthy younger adults, sleep compared with wakefulness consistently improves declarative [14], episodic [14], emotional [26], prospective [24], and motor memory consolidation [28].”
From Sleep and memory consolidation in healthy, neurotypical children, and adults: a summary of systematic reviews and meta-analyses. (2023) · cites this paper as [14]
Declarative memory consolidation correlates with hippocampal activation patterns.
“Analyses indicate SWS [23] and sleep spindles [23] facilitate declarative memory consolidation, which correlates with hippocampal activation patterns [14].”
From Sleep and memory consolidation in healthy, neurotypical children, and adults: a summary of systematic reviews and meta-analyses. (2023) · cites this paper as [14]
Sleep promotes memory consolidation across domains including declarative, episodic, emotional, prospective, and motor memory.
“Overall, while there is evidence that sleep promotes memory consolidation across domains including declarative, episodic, emotional, prospective, and motor memory [14]”
From Sleep and memory consolidation in healthy, neurotypical children, and adults: a summary of systematic reviews and meta-analyses. (2023) · cites this paper as [14]
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Spindle-dependent memory consolidation in healthy adults: a meta-analysis
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A systematic and meta-analytic review of the impact of sleep restriction on memory formation
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Sleep’s contribution to memory formation
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Evidence of an active role of dreaming in emotional memory processing shows that we dream to forget
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Neural reactivation during human sleep
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Optimizing the methodology of human sleep and memory research
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The function of REM and NREM sleep on memory distortion and consolidation
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Recall and recognition of discourse memory across sleep and wake
Mak, M. H. C., Curtis, A., Rodd, J., & Gaskell, M. (2024) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2024.104536 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Davidson, P., & Marcusson‐Clavertz, D. (2022) · SLEEP · doi:10.1093/sleep/zsac280 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Sleep targets highly connected global and local nodes to aid consolidation of learned graph networks
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Weighall, A., & Kellar, I. (2023) · Emerging Topics in Life Sciences · doi:10.1042/etls20230110 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Slow-wave sleep and REM sleep differentially contribute to memory representational transformation
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Rodheim, K., Kainec, K. A., Noh, E., Jones, B. J., & Spencer, R. M. C. (2023) · Learning & Memory · doi:10.1101/lm.053685.122 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Electrophysiological Mechanisms of Memory Consolidation in Human Non-rapid Eye Movement Sleep
Denis, D., & Cairney, S. A. (2024) · Current Sleep Medicine Reports · doi:10.1007/s40675-024-00291-y · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Effects of exercise on the sleep microarchitecture in the aging brain: A study on a sedentary sample
Cassim, T. Z., McGregor, K., Nocera, J. R., García, V. V., Sinon, C. G., Kreuzer, M., & García, P. S. (2022) · Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnsys.2022.855107 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Sleep spindles consolidate declarative memory with tags: A meta-analysis of adult data
Chen, P., Hao, C., & Ma, N. (2024) · Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology · doi:10.1177/18344909241226761 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
A visual paired associate learning ( vPAL ) paradigm to study memory consolidation during sleep
Schmidig, F. J., Geva‐Sagiv, M., Falach, R., Yakim, S., Gat, Y., Sharon, O., Fried, I., & Nir, Y. (2024) · Journal of Sleep Research · doi:10.1111/jsr.14151 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Ortega, R. S., & Peigneux, P. (2024) · SLEEP · doi:10.1093/sleep/zsae114 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Denis, D., & Payne, J. D. (2024) · eNeuro · doi:10.1523/eneuro.0285-23.2024 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Sleep selectively and durably enhances memory for the sequence of real-world experiences
Diamond, N. B., Simpson, S., Baena, D., Murray, B. J., Fogel, S. M., & Levine, B. (2025) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-025-02117-5 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Liu, Y., Masina, F., Ridderinkhof, K. R., & Pezzetta, R. (2023) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105127 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
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Habitual coffee intake shapes the gut microbiome and modifies host physiology and cognition
Boscaini, S., Bastiaanssen, T. F. S., Moloney, G. M., Bergamo, F., Zeraik, L., O'Leary, C., Ferri, A., Irfan, M., van der Rhee, M., Lindemann, T. I. F., et al. (2026) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-026-71264-8 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Effects of sleep and retrieval practice on verbal paired-associate learning across 12 and 24 hoursPreprint
Mak, M. H., & Gaskell, M. G. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/phe5j · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Sleep Differentially and Profoundly Impairs Recall Memory in a Patient with Fornix Damage
Matorina, N., Tseng, J., Ladyka‐Wojcik, N., Olsen, R. K., Mabbott, D., & Barense, M. D. (2023) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_02038 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
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The Role of Sleep in Learning New Meanings for Familiar Words through Stories
Hulme, R. C., & Rodd, J. M. (2023) · Journal of Cognition · doi:10.5334/joc.282 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
NKCC1 inhibition improves sleep quality and EEG information content in a Down syndrome mouse model
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The influence of encoding strategy on associative memory consolidation across wake and sleepPreprint
Denis, D., Bottary, R. M., Cunningham, T. J., Tcheukado, M.-C., & Payne, J. D. (2023) · Learning & Memory · doi:10.1101/lm.053765.123 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Sleep-related benefits to transitive inference are modulated by encoding strength and joint rankPreprint
Foldes, A., Santamaria, L., & Lewis, P. (2023) · Learning & Memory · doi:10.1101/lm.053787.123 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
The effects of cognitive reappraisal and sleep on emotional memory formation
Martinez, B. S., Denis, D., Kim, S. Y., DiPietro, C., Stare, C., Kensinger, E. A., & Payne, J. D. (2023) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2023.2221843 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
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Cansino, S., Torres-Trejo, F., Estrada-Manilla, C., & Ruiz‐Velasco, S. (2025) · Personalized Medicine in Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.pmip.2025.100161 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Sleep selectively and durably enhances real-world sequence memoryPreprint
Diamond, N. B., Simpson, S., Pérez, D. B., Murray, B. J., Fogel, S. M., & Levine, B. (2024) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2024.01.10.575038 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
No evidence for a targeted memory reactivation effect on word-meaning priming
Ball, L. V., Kimel, E., Keller, V. G., Ward, E., Cairney, S. A., Mak, M. H., Li, L., Rodd, J. M., & Gaskell, M. G. (2025) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2025.109264 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Memory consolidation during sleep: a facilitator of new learning?
Guttesen, A. Á. V., Harrington, M. O., Fleming, M. K., Gaskell, M. G., & Cairney, S. A. (2025) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2025.109320 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Sleep-mediated axes of interaction between psychological and immune memory
Ghanem, F. K., Serhal, J. B., Zeenny, M.-N., & Kabrita, C. S. (2026) · Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2026.111638 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Influences of learned verbal labels and sleep on temporal event memory
Wang, Y., Gaskell, M. G., & Gennari, S. P. (2024) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2024.104529 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Sleep and Autobiographical Memory
Matorina, N., & Barense, M. D. (2024) · Current Sleep Medicine Reports · doi:10.1007/s40675-024-00305-9 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Mak, M. H., O’Hagan, A., Horner, A. J., & Gaskell, M. G. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/83fyx · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Illustrations of interactions needed when investigating sleep using a type of AM-PM PM-AM design
Mickes, L., Morgan, D. P., Grandon, D. A. F., Boogert, S. T., & Kazanina, N. (2023) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-023-02248-8 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Effects of post-learning nap in the recognition memory for faces in habitual nappers
Wu, J., Kwok, S. C., Wang, H., & Wang, Z. (2024) · Neurobiology of Learning and Memory · doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2024.107957 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Can sleep patterns prior to negative emotional experiences predict intrusive memories?
Davidson, P., & Pace-Schott, E. F. (2024) · SLEEP · doi:10.1093/sleep/zsae213 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Sleep and script-based memory distortions
Calderan, M., Toffalini, E., Mirandola, C., & Cellini, N. (2025) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2025.109210 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Functional division of the prefrontal lobe of the brain: coordinate-based neuroimaging meta-analysis
Nan, J., Zhang, K., Chen, B., Xu, P., Fan, G., Zhang, S., Ba, X., & Li, D. (2025) · Physical and Engineering Sciences in Medicine · doi:10.1007/s13246-025-01555-9 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Investigation of the Mozart sonata effect on contextual memory extinction
de Faria, R. S., Gesu, A. D., Miranda, L. D. V., Vitorino, L. M., Trzesniak, C. M. F., & Sartori, C. R. (2025) · Einstein (São Paulo) · doi:10.31744/einstein_journal/2025ao1299 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
No support for an effect of a daytime nap on the consolidation or generalization of fear learning
Davidson, P., Garcia, S. M., Denis, D., Kensinger, E. A., & Pace-Schott, E. F. (2025) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2025.109241 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Hokett, E., Lao, P. J., Huber, B. D., Turney, I. C., Chen, R., Kraal, A. Z., Brickman, A. M., Palta, P., & Manly, J. J. (2026) · Sleep Health · doi:10.1016/j.sleh.2025.12.010 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Language of empathy in online counseling of a Global South university distance learning environment
Paulino, R. S., Tangco-Siason, A., & Siason, N. D. (2026) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2026.1750768 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Spacing effects in learning and memory
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Gaylor, C. M., Brennan, A., Blagrove, M., Tulip, C., Bloxham, A., Williams, S., Tucker, R., Benton, D., & Young, H. A. (2024) · Nutrition Research · doi:10.1016/j.nutres.2024.11.012 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Sleep resolves competition between explicit exemplar memory and implicit memory generalizationPreprint
Kleespies, K., Paulus, P. C., Zhu, H., Pargent, F., Jakob, M., Werle, J., Czisch, M., Boedecker, J., Gais, S., & Schönauer, M. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2025.02.21.639581 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The Effect of Sleep on Intrusive Memories in Daily Life: A Meta-analysis of Trauma Film ExperimentsPreprint
Davidson, P., & Marcusson‐Clavertz, D. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/dwrhe
Encoding strategy and sleep interact to facilitate associative memory consolidationPreprint
Denis, D., Bottary, R. M., Cunningham, T. J., Tcheukado, M.-C., & Payne, J. D. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/r79pm
Sleep Cyclic Alternating Pattern (CAP) as a Neurophysiological Marker of Brain Health
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No effect of napping on episodic foresight and prospective memory in kindergarten children
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Sleep supports the consolidation of newly learned statistical concepts
Shaw, J. J., & Bisson, M. (2025) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/17470218251317885
Fernandez, A., Sacher, M., & Sakdavong, J.-C. (2025) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-93700-2_15
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Lotlikar, M. S., Ayotte, B., Choi, A., Seo, F., Robertson, E. M., Maso, F. D., & Roig, M. (2026) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2528246123
Butterworth, J. W., Sedikides, C., Wildschut, T., & Kelley, N. J. (2025) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2025.2550615
Emotive content and sleep enhance memory for metaphorical language
Newbury, C. R., Padraic Monaghan, B., & CITRON, F. M. M. (2025) · Language and Cognition · doi:10.1017/langcog.2025.10053
Milane, T., Chardon, M., Muehlensiepen, F., Knitza, J., Soulard, J., & Vuillerme, N. (2026) · Rheumatology International · doi:10.1007/s00296-025-06059-z
Napias, A. (2024) · doi:10.70675/db16db87z572bz4b7dz8db5zf45d25652f31
Rodrigues, H. C., Belal, R., Joshi, G., Rathore, T., Joshi, K., & Verma, K. (2026) · Sleep Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2026.108998
Rapid Restoration: How 15–30 Minute Naps Influence Attention, Memory, and Executive Function
Ezgin, N. (2026) · OSMANGAZİ JOURNAL OF MEDICINE · doi:10.20515/otd.1841077
Sleep consolidation of social memories and common ground
Qiu, Y., Ball, L. V., Hopkins, C., Denis, D., Gaskell, M. G., & Ferguson, H. J. (2026) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2026.106670
Pre-sleep acute stress modulates sleep-dependent emotional memory.
Hein, E., Halonen, R., Makkonen, T., Stepnicka, P., Streck, A., Wolbers, T., & Pesonen, A.-K. (2026) · Neurobiology of Learning and Memory · doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2026.108218
Hokett, E., Campbell, J., Arunmozhi, A., & Duarte, A. (2026) · Frontiers in Sleep · doi:10.3389/frsle.2026.1968296
- Authors
- Berres, S., & Erdfelder, E.
- Affiliations
- University of Mannheim (DE)
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 2021-12
- Volume
- 147
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- 1309-1353
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W4225863305
- Cited by
- 74
- References
- 354
- Citations by year
- 2026: 11 · 2025: 17 · 2024: 24 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 4
- FWCI
- 6.02
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- doi.org
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion)
- MADOC (University of Mannheim) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (GRK 2277)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Sleep and Wakefulness Research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Sleep and related disorders
- Keywords
- sleep-dependent memory consolidation, episodic memory, memory retention, free recall, cued recall, recognition memory, word learning, selective reporting, replicability
- MeSH terms
- Humans, Mental Recall, Sleep, Wakefulness, Polysomnography, Memory, Episodic
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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