Cost, environmental impact, and resilience of renewable energy under a changing climate: a review

May combine two claims.

The costs associated with onshore and offshore wind energy decreased by 68% and 60%, respectively, between 2010 and 2021.

“The costs associated with onshore and offshore wind energy decreased by 68% and 60%, respectively.”

• cites IRENAa, 2022Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Wind power capacity addition was 93 gigawatts in 2021, of which 72 gigawatts were onshore.

“In addition, wind power capacity addition was 93 gigawatts in 2021, of which 72 gigawatts were onshore.”

• cites IRENAa, 2022Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Renewable energy generation capacity introduced in 2021 was 257 gigawatts, which is 41% higher than the 182 gigawatts added in 2019.

“Renewable energy generation capacity introduced in 2021 was 257 gigawatts, which is 41% higher than the 182 gigawatts added in 2019.”

• cites IRENAa, 2022Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In 2021, the generation capacity of hydropower increased by 23 gigawatts, doubling the 11 gigawatts in 2020.

“In 2021, the generation capacity of hydropower increased by 23 gigawatts, doubling the 11 gigawatts in 2020.”

• cites IRENAa, 2022Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In 2021, bioenergy power generation grew by an additional 10.3 gigawatts, compared to the 9.1 gigawatts added in 2020.

“In 2021, bioenergy power generation grew by an additional 10.3 gigawatts, compared to the 9.1 gigawatts added in 2020.”

• cites IRENAa, 2022Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Renewable generation capacity worldwide increased more than fourfold between 2000 and 2021, from 754 gigawatts to 3,064 gigawatts.

“Renewable generation capacity worldwide increased more than fourfold between 2000 and 2021, from 754 gigawatts to 3,064 gigawatts (IRENAa, 2022).”

• cites IRENAa, 2022Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Renewable energy in some remote regions may have adverse environmental impact.

“However, renewable energy in some remote regions may have adverse environmental impact.”

May combine two claims.

In 2021, geothermal power additions were modest, and only 110 megawatts of concentrated solar power capacity added to the grids.

“Away from these resources, geothermal power additions were modest in 2021, and only 110 megawatts of concentrated solar power capacity added to the grids.”

• cites IRENAa, 2022Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Wind, hydropower, biomass, and geothermal energy were found to have the greatest effects, while solar energy had the least.

“Wind, hydropower, biomass, and geothermal energy were found to have the greatest effects, while solar energy had the least.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

These new solar capacity additions were the highest among all renewable energy sources in 2021.

“These new capacity additions were the highest among all renewable energy sources that year (IRENAa, 2022).”

• cites IRENAa, 2022Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Long-term climate change has a greater impact than short and medium-term climate variations.

“Long-term climate change has a greater impact than short and medium-term climate variations.”

May combine two claims.

Between 2010 and 2021, the average global LCOE of bioenergy for power projects decreased from $0.078/kilowatt-hour in 2010 to $0.067/kilowatt-hour in 2021, lower than the cost of electricity from fossil fuel-fired systems.

“Between 2010 and 2021, the average global LCOE of bioenergy for power projects decreased from $0.078/kilowatt-hour in 2010 to $0.067/kilowatt-hour in 2021, lower than the cost of electricity from fossil fuel-fired systems.”

• cites IRENAa, 2022Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

By 2021, over 843 gigawatts of solar photovoltaic systems had been installed worldwide, representing a 21-fold increase in solar energy since 2010.

“By 2021, over 843 gigawatts of solar photovoltaic systems had been installed worldwide, representing a 21-fold increase in solar energy since 2010.”

• cites IRENAa, 2022Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The average global levelized cost of electricity of newly commissioned hydropower systems in 2021 was $0.048/kilowatt-hour-4% higher than the $0.046/kilowatt-hour recorded in 2020 and 23% higher than the systems commissioned in 2010.

“In general, the average global levelized cost of electricity of newly commissioned hydropower systems in 2021 was $0.048/kilowatt-hour-4% higher than the $0.046/ kilowatt-hour recorded in 2020 and 23% higher than the systems commissioned in 2010.”

• cites IRENAa, 2022Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

133 gigawatts of newly installed solar systems were established during 2021 alone, which was a 13% increase from 2020.

“In addition, 133 gigawatts of newly installed systems were established during 2021 alone, which was a 13% increase from 2020.”

• cites IRENAa, 2022Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The majority of studies conducted since 2016 indicate that the use of renewable energy has a positive impact on the environment, which may be a result of the concerted global effort to develop and use renewable energy since the 2015 Paris Agreement to achieve a controlled global temperature rise of 1.5 °C -2 °C.

“As given in Table 4, the majority of studies conducted since 2016 indicate that the use of renewable energy has a positive impact on the environment, which may be a result of the concerted global effort to develop and use renewable energy since the 2015 Paris Agreement to achieve a controlled global temperature rise of 1.5 °C -2 °C.”

May combine two claims.

Overall, renewable energy positively impacts most countries' economies, with a relatively significant contribution of 4% to Saudi Arabia's gross domestic product and a relatively small impact of 0.2% on Mexico's gross domestic product.

“Overall, renewable energy positively impacts most countries' economies, with a relatively significant contribution of 4% to Saudi Arabia's gross domestic product and a relatively small impact of 0.2% on Mexico's gross domestic product.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The specific measures for developing renewable energy in each nation are divided into government policy support and research on renewable energy technologies, which can provide guidance for nations that have not yet developed renewable energy use.

“The survey results indicate that the specific measures for developing renewable energy in each nation are divided into government policy support and research on renewable energy technologies, which can provide guidance for nations that have not yet developed renewable energy use.”

May combine two claims.

The global average levelized cost of electricity for onshore and offshore wind decreased by 68% and 60%, respectively.

“In addition, the global average levelized cost of electricity for onshore and offshore wind decreased by 68% and 60%, respectively.”

• cites IRENAa, 2022Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Energy demand is anticipated to increase by 56% by 2040.

“It is anticipated that energy demand will increase by 56% by 2040 (Rahman et al., 2022).”

• cites Rahman et al., 2022 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Wind and solar energies are two sources of clean energy, but they are weather-dependent.

“Wind and solar energies are two sources of clean energy, but they are weather-dependent.”

• cites Campos-Guzmán et al., 2019 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Renewable energy can theoretically replace fossil fuels in the four key sectors, but policy and culture influence renewables in practice.

“Thus, renewable energy can theoretically replace fossil fuels in the four key sectors, but policy and culture influence renewables in practice.”

May combine two claims.

By 2030, renewable energy sources could provide 65% of the world's total electricity supply, and by 2050, they could decarbonize 90% of the electricity industry, significantly reducing carbon emissions and assisting in climate change mitigation.

“By 2030, renewable energy sources could provide 65% of the world's total electricity supply, and by 2050, they could decarbonize 90% of the electricity industry, significantly reducing carbon emissions and assisting in climate change mitigation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

By 2020, Ireland had achieved a 15% contribution of renewable energy in transportation.

“The study concluded that by 2020, Ireland had achieved a 15% contribution of renewable energy in transportation.”

• cites Smyth et al., 2010 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Solar energy is one of the most rapidly expanding clean sources of global energy production.

“This energy source is one of the most rapidly expanding clean sources of global energy production (Campos-Guzmán et al., 2019).”

• cites Campos-Guzmán et al., 2019 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Geothermal energy can provide industrial-scale electricity and heat.

“Geothermal energy can provide industrial-scale electricity and heat (Rani et al., 2019).”

• cites Rani et al., 2019 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

China's coal-fired power plants emit 42% of nitrous oxides and 38% of sulfur dioxides, for a total of 40% of the heat-trapping greenhouse gases, thereby increasing global temperature.

“China's coal-fired power plants emit 42% of nitrous oxides and 38% of sulfur dioxides, for a total of 40% of the heat-trapping greenhouse gases, thereby increasing global temperature (Yang et al., 2020).”

• cites Yang et al., 2020 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

To achieve the Paris Agreement's goal of limiting global temperature rise to 1.5 °C-2 °C by 2100, energy systems require rapid, immediate, and sustained innovation and the effective use of renewable energy across all sectors.

“To achieve the Paris Agreement's goal of limiting global temperature rise to 1.5 °C-2 °C by 2100, energy systems require rapid, immediate, and sustained innovation and the effective use of renewable energy across all sectors (Fawzy et al., 2020).”

• cites Fawzy et al., 2020 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Solar, hydropower, and wind availability depends on weather conditions and future climate changes.

“Utilizing renewables is crucial for decarbonizing the energy sector and combating climate change, but solar, hydropower, and wind availability depends on weather conditions and future climate changes.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The building sector accounts for 70% of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia's energy consumption.

“the building sector accounts for 70% of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia's energy consumption.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

In Denmark, sustainable bioenergy consumption is possible if 100% renewable energy systems are utilized in the transportation sector, which is technically feasible given that the costs are comparable to those of fossil fuel alternatives.

“In Denmark, however, sustainable bioenergy consumption is possible if 100% renewable energy systems are utilized in the transportation sector, which is technically feasible given that the costs are comparable to those of fossil fuel alternatives.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Fossil fuel combustion produces greenhouse gases; approximately 35% of greenhouse gases are emitted by existing power plants.

“fossil fuel combustion produces greenhouse gases; approximately 35% of greenhouse gases are emitted by existing power plants (Maamoun et al., 2020).”

• cites Maamoun et al., 2020 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Renewable energy sources play a crucial role in achieving carbon neutrality, reducing global warming and climate change, and meeting the Paris Agreements' 2 °C target.

“Renewable energy sources play a crucial role in achieving carbon neutrality, reducing global warming and climate change, and meeting the Paris Agreements' 2 °C target.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The development of renewable energy is hindered by policies, finances, technology, and culture.

“However, the development of renewable energy is hindered by policies, finances, technology, and culture.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Using renewable energy in the industrial sector can save money and protect the environment from the dangers of fossil fuel emissions.

“According to studies, using renewable energy in the industrial sector can save money and protect the environment from the dangers of fossil fuel emissions.”

May combine two claims.

Policy, technology, finance, and culture influence the use of renewable energy.

“The research demonstrates that policy, technology, finance, and culture influence the use of renewable energy.”

May combine two claims.

Even when a high proportion of renewable energy is used in power plants, their capacity utilization is low and renewable energy exhibits significant monthly variations, resulting in seasonal or even interannual structural imbalances in energy supply.

“several studies in China and Europe have demonstrated that even when a high proportion of renewable energy is used in power plants, their capacity utilization is low and that renewable energy exhibits significant monthly variations, resulting in seasonal or even interannual structural imbalances in energy supply.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

IRENA estimates that by 2050, 90% of the world's energy can and should come from renewable sources.

“The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) estimates that by 2050, 90% of the world's energy can and should come from renewable sources (IRENAb, 2018).”

• cites IRENAb, 2018Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Hydroelectricity generates approximately 1150 gigawatts on a global scale and is the largest renewable energy source.

“Hydroelectricity generates approximately 1150 gigawatts on a global scale and is the largest renewable energy source (Rahman et al., 2022).”

• cites Rahman et al., 2022 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Improving renewable energy laws and regulations can better regulate the energy trade market and strengthen the capital injection mechanism.

“At the same time, improving renewable energy laws and regulations can better regulate the energy trade market and strengthen the capital injection mechanism.”

May combine two claims.

The global impact of climate change on solar energy is predominantly positive, except for a few locations where solar power was originally abundant.

“Therefore, the global impact of climate change on solar energy is predominantly positive, except for a few locations where solar power was originally abundant.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Hydropower plants cause extreme land impacts.

“Hydropower plants cause extreme land impacts.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The initial cost may be challenging for many nations with limited resources, and many will require financial and technical assistance to complete the transition.

“The initial cost may be challenging for many nations with limited resources, and many will require financial and technical assistance to complete the transition.”

May combine two claims.

Renewable energy is environmentally friendly and can contribute to sustainable development in the world.

“To summarize, renewable energy is environmentally friendly and can contribute to sustainable development in the world.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Efficient, dependable renewable technologies may establish a system that is less susceptible to market shocks and increase energy resilience and security by diversifying power supply options.

“In addition, efficient, dependable renewable technologies may establish a system that is less susceptible to market shocks and increase energy resilience and security by diversifying power supply options.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Solar is the least affected energy source by climate change.

“The authors emphasized that solar is the least affected energy source by climate change.”

• cites Russo et al., 2022 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Wind turbines and biomass power plants have a negligible environmental impact.

“In comparison, wind turbines and biomass power plants have a negligible environmental impact.”

• cites Rahman et al. (2022) sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

With prices declining, new power supply has a significant portion of the future to supply 65% of the world's total electricity by 2030 and to decarbonize 90% of the electricity industry by 2050, thereby drastically reducing carbon emissions and contributing to climate change mitigation.

“With prices declining, new power supply has a significant portion of the future to supply 65% of the world's total electricity by 2030 and to decarbonize 90% of the electricity industry by 2050, thereby drastically reducing carbon emissions and contributing to climate change mitigation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Renewables are less susceptible to market shocks and increase each country's energy security.

“Additionally, renewables are less susceptible to market shocks and increase each country's energy security.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Reducing taxes on renewable energy can be an effective incentive for companies to expand their renewable energy projects.

“Reducing taxes on renewable energy can be an effective incentive for companies to expand their renewable energy projects.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

To achieve net-zero emissions by 2050, renewable energy sources must be established by 2030 at the cost of $4 trillion annually.

“To achieve net-zero emissions by 2050, renewable energy sources must be established by 2030 at the cost of $4 trillion annually.”

May combine two claims.

Geothermal energy will not be affected by climate change, as it is primarily influenced by the structure of the earth's crust and the physical processes within the earth's interior.

“This section highlighted that geothermal energy will not be affected by climate change, as it is primarily influenced by the structure of the earth's crust and the physical processes within the earth's interior.”

May combine two claims.

Climate change negatively impacts plant growth and yield, affecting bioenergy potential and food supply.

“Climate change negatively impacts plant growth and yield, affecting bioenergy potential and food supply.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Numerous simulation studies have demonstrated that the future efficiency of hydropower energy in many nations will decrease, with a maximum reduction of 41% in hydropower generation.

“Numerous simulation studies have demonstrated that the future efficiency of hydropower energy in many nations will decrease, with a maximum reduction of 41% in hydropower generation.”

May combine two claims.

Wind and biomass energy are the most environmentally friendly energy sources.

“Wind and biomass energy are the most environmentally friendly energy sources.”

May combine two claims.

The solar capacity factor tends to increase in regions with insufficient solar resources, while it tends to decrease in regions with abundant solar resources.

“As a result, the solar capacity factor tends to increase in regions with insufficient solar resources, while it tends to decrease in regions with abundant solar resources.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

By achieving net-zero carbon emissions, renewable energy investments will be profitable and could save up to $4.2 trillion annually.

“However, by achieving net-zero carbon emissions, renewable energy investments will be profitable and could save up to $4.2 trillion annually.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

In general, hydropower and geothermal power plants impact human health most.

“In general, hydropower and geothermal power plants impact human health most.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Since each country has a unique geographical location, each nation's renewable energy advantages vary, and other regions must concentrate on developing renewable energy with inherent advantages.

“Since each country has a unique geographical location, each nation's renewable energy advantages vary, and other regions must concentrate on developing renewable energy with inherent advantages.”

May combine two claims.

The LCOE of an offshore wind farm in Singapore is 32 cents/kilowatt-hour, which is higher compared to solar photovoltaics, which cost approximately 12 cents/kilowatt-hour.

“the study found that the LCOE of an offshore wind farm is 32 cents/ kilowatt-hour, which is higher compared to solar photovoltaics, which cost approximately 12 cents/kilowatt-hour (Nian et al., 2019).”

• cites Nian et al., 2019 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Hydroelectric has the greatest impact on the aquatic environment, while geothermal plants and biomass have the least.

“In conclusion, hydroelectric has the greatest impact on the aquatic environment, while geothermal plants and biomass have the least.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Utilizing renewable energy contributes to economic growth, generates millions of jobs, and improves people's quality of life.

“Utilizing renewable energy contributes to economic growth, generates millions of jobs, and improves people's quality of life.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

These effects can be mitigated through careful choice and utilization of renewable energy sources.

“However, these effects can be mitigated through careful choice and utilization of renewable energy sources.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Renewable energy sources are available in all nations, but their full potential is not being realized.

“In contrast, renewable energy sources are available in all nations, but their full potential is not being realized.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The costs of solar energy are primarily influenced by technology, climate, and national policies; consequently, with advanced technology and favorable renewable energy policies, the costs will continue to decline in the future.

“In summary, the costs of solar energy are primarily influenced by technology, climate, and national policies; consequently, with advanced technology and favorable renewable energy policies, the costs will continue to decline in the future.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Biodiversity may restrict the use of biomass, so climate change indirectly has a negative impact on biomass.

“Moreover, biodiversity may restrict the use of biomass, so climate change indirectly has a negative impact on biomass.”