Which ‘Working’ Components of Working Memory aren’t Working in Youth with ADHD?
Open accessAbstract
Despite replicated evidence for working memory deficits in youth with ADHD, no study has comprehensively assessed all three primary 'working' subcomponents of the working memory system in these children. Children ages 8-13 with (n = 45) and without (n = 41) ADHD (40% female; M age = 10.5; 65% Caucasian/Non-Hispanic) completed a counterbalanced battery of nine tasks (three per construct) assessing working memory reordering (maintaining and rearranging information in mind), updating (active monitoring of incoming information and replacing outdated with relevant information), and dual-processing (maintaining information in mind while performing a secondary task). Detailed analytic plans were preregistered. Bayesian t-tests indicated that, at the group level, children with ADHD exhibited significant impairments in working memory reordering (BF 10 = 4.64 × 10 5; d = 1.34) and updating (BF 10 = 9.49; d = 0.64), but not dual-processing (BF 01 = 1.33; d = 0.37). Overall, 67%-71% of youth with ADHD exhibited impairment in at least one central executive working memory domain. Reordering showed the most ADHD-related impairment, with 75% classified as below average or impaired, and none demonstrating strengths. The majority of children with ADHD (52%-57%) demonstrated average or better abilities in the remaining two domains, with a notable minority demonstrating strengths in updating (8%) and dual-processing (20%). Notably, impairments in domain-general central executive working memory, rather than individual subcomponents, predicted ADHD severity, suggesting that common rather than specific working memory mechanisms may be central to understanding ADHD symptoms. These impairment estimates extend prior work by providing initial evidence that children with ADHD not only exhibit heterogeneous profiles across cognitive domains but also exhibit significant heterogeneity within subcomponents of key cognitive processes.
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Working memory test deficits are consistently among the largest executive function deficits in youth with ADHD, with some meta-analytic estimates as high as d=0.69-0.74.
“Deficits on tests on tests intended to measure working memory are consistently among the largest deficits of any executive function component54 in studies of youth with ADHD, with some meta-analytic estimates as high as d=0.69–0.74.55”
From Executive function deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder (2024) · cites this paper as [54]
The paper states that children with ADHD show large differences from typically developing peers on working-memory tasks (opening overview, page unavailable). It does not compare those deficits with other executive-function components to establish that they are consistently among the largest. The d=0.69–0.74 meta-analytic estimate has a separate citation in the citing sentence and is not attributed to this paper. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredFindings consistently show lower performance on the working memory index (WMI) and processing speed index (PSI) in ADHD.
“Findings consistently show lower performance on the working memory index (WMI), which reflects the ability to actively manipulate information, and on the processing speed index (PSI), associated with the speed and automatization of cognitive processes [24, 25, 26].”
From ADHD, Subtypes and Cognitive Performance: WISC-V as a Support Tool for Diagnostic Assessment (2026) · cites this paper as [26]
The Results (Diagnostic Group Differences; page unavailable) report lower performance in working-memory reordering and updating among children with ADHD. The paper does not report WMI or PSI scores, so it supports the working-memory portion of the claim but not the assertion about lower performance on both named indexes. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredSet shifting has been understudied compared with working memory and inhibitory control in youth with ADHD and is associated with relatively smaller effect sizes (youth d=0.35, preschool d=0.26).
“Set shifting has been understudied compared to working memory and inhibitory control among youth with ADHD, and has been associated with relatively smaller effect sizes (youth d=0.35, preschool d=0.26)54,60.”
From Executive function deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder (2024) · cites this paper as [54]
The Abstract reports effect sizes for working-memory reordering, updating, and dual-processing, not set shifting. Searches for set shifting, its comparison with working memory and inhibitory control, and the stated youth and preschool effect sizes found no passage addressing the claim. Page numbers were unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.74)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredYouth with ADHD show inhibitory control test deficits with medium effect sizes (d=0.52) compared with neurotypical youth, and preschoolers with elevated ADHD symptoms show small-to-medium deficits (d=0.49).
“Youth with ADHD show deficits on tests intended to measure inhibitory control, with medium effect sizes (d=0.52)54 compared to neurotypical youth, and preschoolers with elevated ADHD symptoms show small-to-medium deficits overall (d=0.49).60”
From Executive function deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder (2024) · cites this paper as [54]
Citation 54 is attached to the inhibitory-control claim, not the separate preschooler claim cited to 60. The Discussion > Limitations passage mentions inhibitory control only as a topic for future work; the paper’s reported effect sizes concern working-memory components. Searches for inhibitory-control deficits and d=0.52 found no passage supporting the attributed result. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)
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Executive Functioning and Emotion Regulation in Children with and without ADHD
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“For example, working memory is impaired in 30% to 85% (Coghill et al., 2014; Fair et al., 2012; Fosco et al., 2019; Kofler et al., 2018; Karalunas et al., 2017), inhibitory control is impaired in 21% to 46% (Coghill et al.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationWorking memory and short-term memory deficits in ADHD: A bifactor modeling approach
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Executive functions and writing skills in children with and without ADHD.
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Self-citationExecutive function deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder
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“A notable exception to this critique is a study that used a specifically designed test battery to evaluate the three subprocesses of the ‘working’ component of working memory in children with ADHD 54 .”
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“, 2018), and large magnitude ADHD/NonADHD between group differences (Fosco et al., 2020; Kofler et al., 2018).”
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“…have ADHD did not differ from individuals with giftedness without a twice-exceptionality in working memory even though the ADHD literature often points to working memory deficits among individuals with ADHD (e.g., Fosco et al., 2020; Kofler et al., 2018; Mayes & Calhoun, 2006; Moura et al., 2019).”
BackgroundResultThe relationship between executive functions and writing in children: a systematic review
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“Nevertheless, Fosco and colleagues also found ADHD symptom severity to be related to the central executive abilities, taken compositely, highlighting the importance of shared processes across central executive sub-components (Fosco et al., 2020).”
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“…span tasks (Egeland, 2015; Engle, 2010) that assess short-term storage/maintenance rather than the “working” components of working memory (e.g., Fosco et al., 2020), and/or use of traditional neuropsychological tests that have been criticized as measures of gross neuropsychological…”
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“WM deficits have been observed in individuals with hyperactivity and attention disorder and impulsivity [26, 27], substance-dependent individuals, including cocaine- [28], alcohol- [29], methamphetamine- [30] and opioid-dependent individuals [31].”
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Self-citationAdult ADHD: it is old and new at the same time – what is it?
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“Remarkably, impaired general executive function/ working memory, rather than its individual sub-components (reordering, updating, dual processing) has been found to predict ADHD and its severity (Fosco et al. 2020).”
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Self-citationPrediction of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder based on explainable artificial intelligence
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“…Comprehension (VC) and Perceptual Reasoning (PR), do not seem to correspond to variables affected in ADHD, however, WM and PS do relate to altered basic psychological processes (Cheung et al., 2014; Fosco et al., 2020; Kibby et al., 2019; Kubo et al., 2018; Moura et al., 2019; Yang et al., 2017).”
InfluentialPediatric ADHD symptom burden relates to distinct neural activity across executive function domains
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“multidimensional overlapping relationship between ADHD symptom burden and working memory, the executive processes underlying working memory might be particularly important avenues for studying ADHD in childhood and adolescence (Fosco et al., 2020).”
Groves, N. B., Chan, E. S. M., Marsh, C. L., Gaye, F., Jaisle, E. M., & Kofler, M. J. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1034722 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“CET contains nine games that train each of the three primary central executive processes–updating, dual-processing, and temporal/serial reordering (30)–using three different stimulus modalities— verbal/phonological, visual, and spatial.”
BackgroundSelf-citationCalub, C. A., Rapport, M. D., Irurita, C., Eckrich, S. J., & Bohil, C. J. (2022) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2022.2047913 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“…et al., 2018; Rapport et al., 2018), and recent evidence indicates that the commonality (shared variance) among domain-general, upper-level WM processes (e.g., updating, reordering, and dual processing) better predicts ADHD core symptom severity than do single WM processes (Fosco et al., 2020).”
BackgroundMethodAssessing working memory in general education students for ADHD detection
Angelopoulou, E., Karabatzaki, Z., & Drigas, A. S. (2021) · Research Society and Development · doi:10.33448/rsd-v10i10.18766 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Harmon, S. L., Kistner, J. A., & Kofler, M. J. (2020) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-020-00661-4 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“2019), working memory heterogeneity (Fosco et al. 2020), and as predictors of social functioning (Kofler et al.”
BackgroundSelf-citationMemoria de trabajo y flexibilidad cognitiva en niños típicos y con diagnóstico de TDAH.
Gatica-Ferrero, S. A. (2020) · Avances en Psicología Latinoamericana · doi:10.12804/revistas.urosario.edu.co/apl/a.7743 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Chan, E. S. M., Gaye, F., Cole, A. M., Singh, L. J., & Kofler, M. J. (2023) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000918 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationMarsh, C. L., Harmon, S. L., Cho, S., Chan, E. S. M., Gaye, F., DeGeorge, L., Black, K. E., Irwin, L. N., & Kofler, M. J. (2023) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-023-01152-y · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“…are thought to reduce bandwidth for storing/processing task-relevant information and create additional dual-processing demands by allocating resource-limited internal focus of attention and short-term storage space to anxiety-provoking stimuli/thoughts (Eysenck et al., 2007; Fosco et al., 2020).”
Self-citationMarsh, C. L., Groves, N. B., Mehra, L. M., Black, K. E., Irwin Harper, L. N., Meyer, A., & Kofler, M. J. (2023) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2023.2166029 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Briefly, working memory involves the active, top-down manipulation of information held in short-term memory through interrelated functions of updating, dual-processing, and temporal/serial reordering (Fosco et al., 2020).”
BackgroundSelf-citationHancock, N., Redmond, S. M., Fox, A. B., Ash, A. C., & Hogan, T. P. (2025) · American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.1044/2025_ajslp-24-00052 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Irony Processing in Adults with ADHD: Evidence From Eye-Tracking and Executive Attention Tasks
Kyriacou, M., Rummelhoff, C., & Köder, F. (2025) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/10870547251333819 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Consequently, the encoding of incoming information is suboptimal (Ortega et al., 2020), leading to less effective information maintenance and manipulation in the mind (Fosco et al., 2020).”
Rapport, M. D., Friedman, L. M., Pothoven, C., & Calub, C. A. (2022) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-022-09979-3 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Singh, L. J., Floyd, R. G., Reynolds, M. R., Pike, N. M., & Huenergarde, M. C. (2025) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2024.2357376 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“For example, Word List Interference Repetition appears to engage passive storage rather than the “working” components of working memory (i.e., continuous updating, dual-processing, serial/temporal reordering; Fosco et al., 2020; Tarle et al., 2017; Wells et al., 2018).”
Pho, B., Stevenson, R. A., Saljoughi, S., Mohsenzadeh, Y., & Stojanoski, B. B. (2024) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2024.101439 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“…of ADHD is a deficit in processing speed (Moura et al., 2019; WISC-IV, 2013; Jacobson et al., 2011; Katz et al., 2011; Rucklidge and Tannock, 2002; Fosco et al., 2020) and executive functioning, which is comprised of three components: inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, and working memory…”
BackgroundFeeney, K. E., Morris, S. S. J., Ward, A. R., & Musser, E. D. (2023) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-023-10109-w · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“In particular, youth with ADHD demonstrate difficulty with both spatial STM storage (i.e., the ability to visually keep multiple pieces of spatial location information available) and spatial STM rehearsal (i.e., the ability to maintain, recite/reproduce information; Fosco et al., 2020).”
Harvey, A. G. (2025) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2025.104767 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“As another example, ADHD is associated with difficulties across various dimensions of memory (Fosco et al., 2020).”
Egeland, J., Lund, O., & Andreassen, T. H. (2022) · Tidsskrift for Norsk psykologforening · doi:10.52734/e4t74rz6 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Executive Dysfunction Among Children with ADHD: Contributions to Deficits in Mathematics
Friedman, L. M., Fabrikant-Abzug, G., Orban, S. A., & Eckrich, S. J. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-03945-4_40 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Gatica-Ferrero, S. A., Milla-Cano, C., Ardiles-González, E., & Rosas-Molina, V. (2023) · Avances en Psicología Latinoamericana · doi:10.12804/revistas.urosario.edu.co/apl/a.11364 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
ADHD, Subtypes and Cognitive Performance: WISC-V as a Support Tool for Diagnostic Assessment
Lavigne-Cerván, R., Collado-Valero, J., Navarro-Soria, I., Rosales-Gómez, M., & Torrecillas-Martínez, M. (2026) · Actas Espanolas de Psiquiatria · doi:10.62641/aep.v54i3.2122 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Findings consistently show lower performance on the working memory index (WMI), which reflects the ability to actively manipulate information, and on the processing speed index (PSI), associated with the speed and automatization of cognitive processes [24–26].”
Lavigne-Cerván, R., Collado-Valero, J. A., Martínez-González, A. E., & Navarro-Soria, I. N.-S. (2026) · Revista de Psicología Clínica Con Niños y Adolescentes · doi:10.21134/rpcna.2026.13.1.2 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
ElAdl, A. M. (2024) · Al-Maǧallaẗ Al-Tarbawiyyaẗ Al-Šāmlaẗ · doi:10.21608/ejc.2024.348264 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Motor coordination ability and core symptoms of ADHD: Executive function as a mediator
Alsamiri, Y. A. (2025) · Applied Neuropsychology Child · doi:10.1080/21622965.2025.2517614 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Horsley, A., & Friesen, D. C. (2025) · Education and human development · doi:10.5772/intechopen.1009985 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Male and female impairments in odor span are observed in a rat model of PTSDPreprint
McGonigle, C. E., Lapish, C. C., & Logrip, M. L. (2022) · Learning & Memory · doi:10.1101/lm.053620.122 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Working and recognition memories are likely both dependent on attentionalallocation andthus may be impacted by trauma history, as attentional de fi cit and bias have been associated with impairment in both forms of memory (Fosco et al. 2020; Spataro et al. 2022).”
BackgroundMilla-Cano, C., & Gatica-Ferrero, S. A. (2020) · Redalyc (Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México)
Executive Dysfunction Among Children with ADHD: Contributions to Deficits in Mathematics
Friedman, L. M., Fabrikant-Abzug, G., Orban, S. A., & Eckrich, S. J. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-44982-7_40-2
TRAUMA AND CUE-ASSOCIATED WORKING MEMORY DEFICITS IN A RAT MODEL OF POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDERPreprint
McGonigle, C. E., Lapish, C. C., & Logrip, M. L. (2022) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2022.05.20.492890
“Recognition and working memories are likely both dependent upon attentional allocation and may be impacted by trauma history, as attentional deficit and bias have been associated with impairment in both forms of memory (Fosco et al. 2020; Spataro et al. 2022).”
BackgroundPho, B., Stevenson, R., Mohzenszadeh, Y., & Stojanoski, B. B. (2023) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2023.12.20.572617
(2024) · Al-Maǧallaẗ Al-Tarbawiyyaẗ Al-Šāmlaẗ · doi:10.21608/ejc.2024.348256
Gil, M., Latzer, Y., Tziperman, N., Farbstein, D., Sher, H., & Weinbach, N. (2025) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.24367
“demands, difficulties in updating have been proposed to contribute to and maintain mental health problems (Fosco et al. 2020; Friedman et al. 2018; Gustavson and Miyake 2016; Nikolin et al. 2021; Snyder, Miyake, and Hankin 2015; Yuan et al. 2024).”
Marsh, C. L., Gaye, F., Cibrian, E., Cho, S., Tatsuki, M. O., Obi, J. O., Geren, M. E., Harmon, S. L., & Kofler, M. J. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1536942
Self-citation(2025) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118941430.refs
Rodríguez‐Herrera, R., Fernández‐Martín, P., Sánchez-Kuhn, A., Marcos, S.-L., Miguel, S.-O., Laura, A.-P., Patricia, M.-S., León, J. J., & Pilar, F. (2025) · Virtual Reality · doi:10.1007/s10055-025-01214-0
“This discrepancy may be explained by the methodologi - cal variability in tasks used across studies, which measure different components of WM and limit the ability to unify results (Fosco et al. 2020 ).”
A Neuropsychological Perspective on ADHD: Quantitative Insights into Working Memory Components
Malhotra, P., & Khurana, R. (2025) · Annals of Neurosciences · doi:10.1177/09727531251391921
“13 Research has shown that Cognitive Working Memory Training (CWMT) is effective in enhancing working memory in young people with ADHD.”
Working Memory Load and Inhibition Performance Among Children With ADHD
Orhan, I., & Paralik, I. (2025) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/10870547251397022 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Research indicates that CE is more impaired in children with ADHD compared to their typically developing peers (Fosco et al., 2020; Rapport et al., 2008).”
Groppe, A., Krauel, K., & Angenstein, N. (2026) · Hearing Research · doi:10.1016/j.heares.2026.109638
Giaouri, S., Charitaki, G., & Alevriadou, A. (2026) · Journal of Mathematics and Science Teacher · doi:10.29333/mathsciteacher/18528
“Conversely, children with ADHD may not exhibit core linguistic deficits but frequently struggle to apply math vocabulary accurately due to difficulties with attention and self-regulation (Fosco et al., 2020; Martinussen et al., 2005).”
Chutko, L. S., Surushkina, S. Y., Yakovenko, E. A., & Щеглова, Л. В. (2026) · S S Korsakov Journal of Neurology and Psychiatry · doi:10.17116/jnevro202612609273
- Authors
- Fosco, W. D., Kofler, M. J., Groves, N. B., Chan, E. S. M., & Raiker, J. S.
- Affiliations
- Florida International University (US)
- Florida State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Fosco, Whitney D.
- Venue
- Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology
- Published
- 2020-01-27
- Volume
- 48
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 647-660
- ISSN
- 0091-0627 (ISSN-L)
- 1573-2835
- PMC
- PMC7192792
- OpenAlex
- W3004359024
- Cited by
- 55
- References
- 57
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 5
- FWCI
- 5.47
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (R34 MH102499-01, R01 MH115048)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Keywords
- attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, working memory, working memory updating, dual processing, central executive, children and adolescents, ADHD symptom severity, cognitive heterogeneity
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity, Child, Female, Humans, Male, Memory, Short-Term, Psychomotor Performance, Executive Function, Cognitive Dysfunction
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