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The Impact of Parenting Stress: A Meta-analysis of Studies Comparing the Experience of Parenting Stress in Parents of Children With and Without Autism Spectrum Disorder

Hayes, Stephanie A., Watson, Shelley L.·2013·Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders

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Abstract

Researchers commonly report that families of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) experience more parenting stress than families of typically developing (TD) children or those diagnosed with other disabilities [e.g., Down syndrome (DS), cerebral palsy, intellectual disability]. The authors reexamined the research using comparison groups to investigate parenting stress and conducted a meta-analysis to pool results across studies. The experience of stress in families of children with ASD versus families of TD children resulted in a large effect size. Comparisons between families of children of ASD and families with other disabilities also generated a large effect size however, this result should be interpreted with caution as it may be associated with the specific experience of parenting a child with DS.

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“Bu çalışmalarda ayrıca ebeveynlerin özel gereksinimli çocuğu olmayan ebeveynlere oranla daha fazla stres yaşadıkları belirlenmiştir (Estes vd., 2013; Donley vd., 2018; Hayes & Watson, 2013; Rathe vd., 2019).”
The experience of mothers of autistic children with a pathological demand avoidance profile: an interpretative phenomenological analysis
Curtis, S. J., & Izett, E. (2025) · Discover Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s44192-025-00127-3 · Cited by 7
The Power of Two: Exploring the Impact of Mothers’ and Fathers’ Involvement in Speech-Language Pathology Treatment for Children with Autism
Kreiser, N., & Segal, O. (2025) · Autism & Developmental Language Impairments · doi:10.1177/23969415251355462 · Cited by 4
“Raising young autistic children can amplify parental feelings of stress and the perceived emotional load (Di Renzo et al., 2022; Graessel et al., 2014; Hayes & Watson 2013; Hoefman et al., 2014).”
Parental Self-Compassion and Psychological Distress in Families of Children with Language and Speech Disorders: A Mixed-Methods Study in the Greek Context
Karakasidou, E., Papadimitriou, A., & Triantafyllou, L. (2025) · Children · doi:10.3390/children12111456 · Cited by 4
“In a similar way, severity of the child’s disorder has been associated with stress in parents of children with communication disorders [18].”
Early Intervention, Regular Education, and Family: Reciprocal Influences on Communication and Language Disorders
Alcalá-Cerrillo, M., My works are correct, B. M. I. A. A. I. S. R. L. M. T. I. D. A.-M., García-Gil, M. Á., Adsuar, J. C., Vicente-Castro, F., Fernández-Solana, J., & Gonzalez-Bernal, J. J. (2023) · Children · doi:10.3390/children11010043 · Cited by 4
“The presence of a family history of communication and language disorders was not directly related to parental stress [77,78].”
Background
Clinicians' experiences and perceptions of family therapy in the context of autism
Hsiang, C. H.-T., Campbell, L., & Tavener, M. (2024) · Journal of Family Therapy · doi:10.1111/1467-6427.12467 · Cited by 4
The mediator role of parenting stress in the effect of stigmatization on burnout in parents of children with autism: A structural equality model
Gülbetekin, E., Özdemir, F. K., & Aşut, G. (2024) · Journal of Pediatric Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.pedn.2024.07.021 · Cited by 4
Feasibility of a brief online mindfulness intervention for parents of children with developmental disabilities
Osborn, R., Dorstyn, D., Roberts, L., & Kneebone, I. (2024) · Research and Practice in Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1080/23297018.2024.2371118 · Cited by 4
Web-based physical activity programs for individuals with autism spectrum disorder and their parents: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Liu, J., & Shen, B. (2024) · International Journal of Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1080/20473869.2024.2394737 · Cited by 4
Emotions and difficulties experienced by parents of children with autism: A qualitative study
Uysal, G., Karakul, A., & Düzkaya, D. S. (2024) · Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice · doi:10.1111/jep.14207 · Cited by 4
Resilience Within Families of Young Children with ASD
Neijs, L. D.-D., Swaab, H., van Berckelaer‐Onnes, I. A., & Ester, W. A. (2025) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-025-06773-4 · Cited by 8
“…stress that can have major psychological and physical consequences in parents of young children with ASD and that may influence family functioning (Fairthorne et al., 2014; Hayes & Watson, 2013; Rezendes & Scarpa, 2011; Riahi & Izadi-Mazidi, 2012; van der Lubbe et al., 2022; Zhou et al., 2019).”
The Relationship between Parenting Stress and Parenting Burnout in Parents of Children with Autism: The Chain Mediating Role of Social Support and Coping Strategies
Zhang, J., Wang, L., Liu, S., Yang, Y., Fan, J., & Zhang, Y. (2025) · International Journal of Mental Health Promotion · doi:10.32604/ijmhp.2025.060064 · Cited by 4
Caregiver Peer Support for Families of Autistic Children in France
McCrossin, J., Lach, L., Biette, S., & Cappe, É. (2025) · Child Care Health and Development · doi:10.1111/cch.70123 · Cited by 4
Parent–child similarity on autism and ADHD traits and children's social functioning and psychological well‐being at 3 years
Wechsler, D. L., Jones, E. J. H., Pasco, G., Bazelmans, T., Ali, J. B., Johnson, M. H., Charman, T., & The BASIS/STAARS Team (2025) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.70014 · Cited by 4
Sleep Problems in Children with ASD and Mothers’ Stress: the Mediating Role of Mother’s Quality of Life and Moderator Role of Mother’s Resilience
Saad, M. A. E. (2025) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-025-07011-7 · Cited by 4
“Group comparison research further found parents of children with ASD to have higher levels of stress and lower level of well-being than parents of typically developing children (e.g., Hayes and Watson, 2013).”
Predictive Analysis of Parent Activation and Autism
McGrew, J. H., Yu, Y., Ruble, L. A., & Murray, D. S. (2023) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-023-05985-w · Cited by 6
“This is particularly salient because compared to parents of children with other disabilities, parents of autistic children report significantly higher stress and burden (Barroso et al., 2018; Craig et al., 2016; Gupta, 2007; Hayes & Watson, 2013; Watson et al., 2013).”
Measuring family outcomes in parenting programs for children with neurodisabilities: a scoping review
McCrossin, J., & Lach, L. (2023) · Journal of Family Social Work · doi:10.1080/10522158.2023.2231986 · Cited by 4
Prospective Association of Parenting Stress with Later Child Behavior Problems in Early Childhood Autism
O’Connor, E., Grant, M., Green, C. C., Treyvaud, K., & Hudry, K. (2023) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-023-06177-2 · Cited by 4
“Parents of autistic children experience higher levels of stress than parents of neurotypical children or children with other developmental delays (Hayes & Watson, 2013; Olson et al., 2022).”
Exploring the varied manifestations of structural violence in the lives of children on the autism spectrum and their families: a qualitative longitudinal study in Kurdistan, Iran
Khougar, A., Ahmadi, P. B., Ranjbar, H., Ahadi, M., & Ahadi, P. (2023) · International Journal for Equity in Health · doi:10.1186/s12939-023-02078-z · Cited by 4
Impact of the Great Recession on Adults With Autism and Their Mothers
Hickey, E. J., DaWalt, L. S., Bolt, D. M., Hong, J., Song, J., Taylor, J. L., & Seltzer, M. M. (2023) · American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1352/1944-7558-129.1.26 · Cited by 4
Economic impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on families of children with autism and other developmental disabilities
Pokoski, O. M., Crain, H. M., DiGuiseppi, C. G., Furnier, S. M., Moody, E. J., Nadler, C. B., Pazol, K., Sanders, J., Wiggins, L. D., & Durkin, M. S. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1342504 · Cited by 4
A qualitative investigation on the resilience of parents of children with autism spectrum disorder in Macau
Lam, K. K. L., Chan, C. N., Wong, L. H., He, Y., Lin, X., & Chi, P. (2024) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2024.102357 · Cited by 4
Moderating effects of general self-efficacy on courtesy stigma and anxiety and depressive symptoms of parents of children with autism spectrum disorder
Tong, J., Xu, C., Wang, B., Wang, T., Wang, X., Ma, S., Shi, D., Wang, X., & Yan, D. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1454004 · Cited by 4
Perceptions comparées de parents d’enfants doués et doublement exceptionnels quant à l’intensité de leurs difficultés parentales au Québec
Brault‐Labbé, A., Cloutier, A., Caouette, A.-M., Bolduc, D., Morin, M.-K., Boudreault, É., & Brassard, A. (2024) · Revue de psychoéducation · doi:10.7202/1114503ar · Cited by 4
Effects of remote support courses on parental mental health and child development in autism: A randomized controlled trial
Lü, J., Wei, H., Zhang, Y., Fan, F., Huang, H.-Y., Dong, Q.-J., Chen, J., Ao, D.-Q., Chen, L., Li, T., et al. (2024) · World Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.5498/wjp.v14.i12.1892 · Cited by 4
Interrater reliability of the DSM-5 and ICD-11 Criterion A for PTSD and complex PTSD in parents of children with autism using the Life Events Checklist
Hinde, K., Hald, G. M., Hallford, D. J., Lange, T., Arendt, M. C. B. B., Pavan, S., & Austin, D. (2025) · BJPsych Open · doi:10.1192/bjo.2024.848 · Cited by 4
Sense making affects stress response processes in parents of children with developmental disorders
Yamane, T. (2015) · The Japanese journal of psychology · doi:10.4992/jjpsy.86.14035 · Cited by 4
“発達障害のある子どもへの支援において家族支援は重要である。発達障害のある子どもをもつ親は子育ての中で様々な不安や困難に直面しやすく，育児ストレスも高い（Hayes & Watson, 2013）。抑うつや精神疾患に発展することもある（芳賀・久保， 2006; 野邑・金子・本城・吉川・石川・松岡・辻井， 2010）。発達障害の子どもをもつ親への支援をおこなっていく上で，発達障害児・者の親の心理的適応にいかなる要因が関わっているかを明らかにしていくことは重要といえよう。障害のある子どもをもつ親は困難な育児経験の中で，“なぜ子どもに障害があるのだろうか”“なぜ自分…”
Viewpoints on what is important to maintain relationship satisfaction in couples raising a child with autism spectrum disorder
Sim, A., Fristedt, S., Cordier, R., Vaz, S., Kuzminski, R., & Falkmer, T. (2019) · Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2019.04.008 · Cited by 5
Effects of Parent-Implemented Interventions on Outcomes for Children with Developmental Disabilities: A Meta-Analysis
Dyches, T. T., Smith, T. B., Korth, B. B., & Mandleco, B. L. (2018) · ScholarsArchive (Brigham Young University) · Cited by 3
Caregiver Psychological Distress Predicts Temperament and Social-Emotional Outcomes in Infants with Autism Traits
Chetcuti, L., Uljarević, M., Varcin, K. J., Boutrus, M., Pillar, S. V., Dimov, S., Barbaro, J., Dissanayake, C., Green, J., Wan, M. W., et al. (2021) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-021-00838-5 · Cited by 5
Acceptability of a Virtual Mind–Body Intervention for Parents of Children With Autism or Learning Disabilities
Luberto, C. M., Perez, G. K., Finkelstein‐Fox, L., Millstein, R. A., Fell, L. A., Chad‐Friedman, E., Park, E. R., & Kuhlthau, K. A. (2021) · Global Advances in Health and Medicine · doi:10.1177/21649561211047804 · Cited by 4
“, more severe symptoms, unpredictable emotional outbursts, deficits in social communication, and restrictive/ repetitive behaviors).(9,26) Separating the groups allowed the interventionist to use examples specific to the parents’ experience, and may have provided greater shared experience and understanding among paren…”
Sleep and Negative Affect Across Toddlerhood in the Context of Stress
Sperber, J. F., McQuillan, M. E., Hoyniak, C. P., Staples, A. D., Rudasill, K. M., Molfese, V. J., & Bates, J. E. (2022) · Affective Science · doi:10.1007/s42761-021-00094-2 · Cited by 4
Parental Stress of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder During the Coronavirus Pandemic (COVID-19): Experience from Serbia
Đurić-Zdravković, A., Japundža‐Milisavljević, M., & Perović, D. (2022) · Fortschritte der Neurologie · Psychiatrie · doi:10.1055/a-1743-2770 · Cited by 4
Physical Fitness and Maternal Psychosocial Status in Children With Autism Attending a Regular Physical Activity Program
ŞAHAN, A. K., Öztürk, N., Kutukcu, E. C., Aksu, H., Tunagür, M. T., & Arıkan, H. (2022) · Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1177/10883576221108110 · Cited by 4
Impact of Belgian COVID-19 lockdown restrictions on autistic individuals’ socio-communicative behaviors and their parents’ quality of life
Weyland, M., Maes, P., Kissine, M., & Defresne, P. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0273932 · Cited by 5
“Outside the pandemic context, raising and caring for a child with a diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) leads to additional anxiety, as compared to families without an autistic child [2] or to families with a child with another disability [3].”
Background
ProVIA-Kids - outcomes of an uncontrolled study on smartphone-based behaviour analysis for challenging behaviour in children with intellectual and developmental disabilities or autism spectrum disorder
Meerson, R., Buchholz, H., Kammerer, K., Göster, M., Schobel, J., Ratz, C., Pryss, R., Taurines, R., Romanos, M., Gamer, M., et al. (2024) · Frontiers in Digital Health · doi:10.3389/fdgth.2024.1462682 · Cited by 4

Authors: Hayes, S. A., & Watson, S. L.
Affiliations: University of Alberta (CA)
Laurentian University (CA)
Corresponding author: Hayes, Stephanie A.
Venue: Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published: 2012-07-13
Volume: 43
Issue: 3
Pages: 629-642
ISSN: 0162-3257 (ISSN-L)
1573-3432
DOI: 10.1007/s10803-012-1604-y
OpenAlex: W2069698478
Cited by: 1,847
References: 97
Citations by year: 2026: 164 · 2025: 184 · 2024: 185 · 2023: 189 · 2022: 166 · 2021: 194 · 2020: 149 · 2019: 152 · 2018: 145 · 2017: 92 · 2016: 102 · 2015: 64 · 2014: 43 · 2013: 15
FWCI: 5.68
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
Locations: Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Family and Disability Support Research
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Child Nutrition and Feeding Issues
Keywords: parental stress, autism spectrum disorder, typically developing children, Down syndrome, cerebral palsy, intellectual disability, family stress, comparison groups, effect size
MeSH terms: Adaptation, Psychological, Adult, Child, Child Development Disorders, Pervasive, Humans, Parents, Social Support, Stress, Psychological, Parenting

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The Impact of Parenting Stress: A Meta-analysis of Studies Comparing the Experience of Parenting Stress in Parents of Children With and Without Autism Spectrum Disorder

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