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The Impact of Parenting Stress: A Meta-analysis of Studies Comparing the Experience of Parenting Stress in Parents of Children With and Without Autism Spectrum Disorder

Hayes, Stephanie A., Watson, Shelley L.·2013·Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders

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Abstract

Researchers commonly report that families of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) experience more parenting stress than families of typically developing (TD) children or those diagnosed with other disabilities [e.g., Down syndrome (DS), cerebral palsy, intellectual disability]. The authors reexamined the research using comparison groups to investigate parenting stress and conducted a meta-analysis to pool results across studies. The experience of stress in families of children with ASD versus families of TD children resulted in a large effect size. Comparisons between families of children of ASD and families with other disabilities also generated a large effect size however, this result should be interpreted with caution as it may be associated with the specific experience of parenting a child with DS.

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Background
Association between child behavioural problems and parenting stress in autism spectrum disorders: the role of parenting self-efficacy
Strauß, K., Servadio, M., Valeri, G., Casula, L., Vicari, S., & Fava, L. (2022) · International Journal of Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1080/20473869.2022.2052417 · Cited by 35
“These research findings have been confirmed in a meta-analysis (Hayes and Watson, 2013).”
Result
Social, Community, and Cultural Factors Associated with Parental Stress in Fathers and Mothers
Lo, C. K. M., Chen, M., Chen, Q., Chan, K. L., & Ip, P. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20021128 · Cited by 40
“In line with the existing studies, fathers with certain demographic characteristics, including young age [52], lower education level [18,29], and divorce/separation [23], experience more parental stress.”
BackgroundResult
Parents’ Stress, Parental Burnout, and Parenting Behavior during the COVID-19 Pandemic: Comparing Parents of Children with and without Complex Care Needs
Desimpelaere, E. N., Soenens, B., Prinzie, P., Waterschoot, J., Vansteenkiste, M., Morbée, S., Schrooyen, C., & Pauw, S. S. W. D. (2023) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-023-02702-0 · Cited by 29
“Even outside pandemic times, a wide literature suggests that having a child with CCN is associated with higher levels of parenting stress (e.g., Craig et al., 2016; Gupta, 2007; Hayes & Watson, 2013; Valicenti-McDermott et al., 2015).”
Background
RUBI parent training as a group intervention for children with autism: A community pilot study
Edwards, G. S., Zlomke, K. R., & Greathouse, A. D. (2019) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2019.101409 · Cited by 29
Parental experiences raising children with autism spectrum disorder in Eastern Europe: a scoping review
Čolić, M., Dababnah, S., Garbarino, N., & Betz, G. (2019) · International Journal of Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1080/20473869.2019.1688931 · Cited by 33
The Role of Compassion and Ethics in Decision Making Regarding Access to Applied Behavior Analysis Services During the COVID-19 Crisis: A Response to Cox, Plavnick, and Brodhead
Leblanc, L. A., Lazo, J. F., Pollard, J. S., & Unumb, L. S. (2020) · Behavior Analysis in Practice · doi:10.1007/s40617-020-00446-7 · Cited by 30
ABA Finding Its Heart During a Pandemic: An Exploration in Social Validity
Nicolson, A. C., Lazo, J. F., & Shandy, J. (2020) · Behavior Analysis in Practice · doi:10.1007/s40617-020-00517-9 · Cited by 29
Perceived social support and life satisfaction of Chinese parents of children with autism spectrum disorder: Loneliness as a mediator and moderator
Lu, M., Wang, R., Huan, L., Pang, F., & Chen, X. (2021) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2021.101829 · Cited by 34
The Relationship Between Parenting Stress and Parental Burnout Among Chinese Parents of Children with ASD: A Moderated Mediation Model
Liu, S., Zhang, L., Yi, J., Liu, S., Li, D., Wu, D., & Yin, H. (2023) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-022-05854-y · Cited by 29
“Caring for children with ASD can be extremely difficult, since treatment and interventions for children with ASD are lengthy processes, and children with ASD face more challenges in school, employment, and resettlement issues (Hayes & Watson, 2013).”
Coparenting Competence in Parents of Children with ASD: A Marker of Coparenting Quality
May, C. D., StGeorge, J. M., Fletcher, R. J., Dempsey, I., & Newman, L. K. (2017) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-017-3208-z · Cited by 29
“Parents of children with an ASD are likely to experience high and damaging levels of parenting stress which predict both child and parent negative outcomes (Hayes and Watson 2013).”
Background
Caregiver Reports of Screen Time Use of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Qualitative Study
Stiller, A., Weber, J., Strube, F., & Mößle, T. (2019) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs9050056 · Cited by 29
“This is understandable when considering that parents of children with ASD experience more stress than other parents [54,55].”
Background
Shortened telomeres in families with a propensity to autism
Nelson, C. A., Varcin, K. J., Coman, N. K., DeVivo, I., & Tager-Flusberg, H. (2015) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2015.04.006 · Cited by 27
The impact of child and family stressors on the self-rated health of mothers of children with autism spectrum disorder: Associations with depressed mood over a 12-year period
Benson, P. R. (2017) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361317697656 · Cited by 36
“…indicates that, on average, parents of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) experience higher levels of stress and poorer mental health than do parents of typically developing children or children with nonASD disabilities (for reviews, see Hayes and Watson, 2013; Karst and Van Hecke, 2012).”
Background
On the spectrum, off the beaten path. A qualitative study of Irish parents’ experiences of raising a child with autism spectrum conditions
Byrne, G., Sarma, K. M., Hendler, J., & O'Connell, A. (2018) · British Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1111/bld.12227 · Cited by 40
“…parents of children with other disabilities (e.g., intellectual disabilities), parents of children with ASC experience significantly higher levels of stress and depressive type symptoms (Hayes & Watson, 2012; Ludlow et al., 2012), with this stress prevalent across the lifespan (Myers et al., 2009).”
Background
Evolution of the Autism Literature and the Influence of Parents: A Scientific Mapping in Web of Science
Carmona-Serrano, N., Moreno-Guerrero, A.-J., Marín, J. A. M., & López-Belmonte, J. (2021) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci11010074 · Cited by 31
“9 months [61], to the higher stress in families with students with ASD than other families with children with other symptoms [62], to the level of well-being in families with students with ASD, where it is higher in relation to disabilities such as Down’s or Fragile X syndrome [63], or that those families with student…”
Background
Community-based Parent Education for Caregivers of Children Newly Diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Milgramm, A., Corona, L. L., Janicki-Menzie, C., & Christodulu, K. V. (2021) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-021-05025-5 · Cited by 28
Predictors of Satisfaction with Autism Treatment Services During COVID-19
Ferguson, E. F., Jimenez-Muñoz, M., Feerst, H., & Vernon, T. W. (2021) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-021-05232-0 · Cited by 30
Mental health and social support of caregivers of children and adolescents with ASD and other developmental disorders during COVID-19 pandemic
Wang, C. (2021) · Journal of Affective Disorders Reports · doi:10.1016/j.jadr.2021.100242 · Cited by 37
“…hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and ASD, showed a higher level of parenting stress and mental health problems (Cheung and Theule, 2016; Hayes and Watson, 2013; Schnabel et al., 2019; Theule et al., 2013; Karst and Van Hecke, 2012; Rivard, Terroux, Parent-Boursier, and Mercier, 2014; Martin et…”
Effects of a Web-Based Parent–Child Physical Activity Program on Mental Health in Parents of Children with ASD
Zhao, M., You, Y., Chen, S., Li, L., Du, X., & Wang, Y. T. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph182412913 · Cited by 34
Multilevel approach to gender differences in adaptation in father-mother dyads parenting individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder
García‐López, C., Sarriá, E., & Pozo, P. (2016) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2016.04.003 · Cited by 36
The relationship between parental stress and psychological adjustment of the children: The role of parental psychological flexibility as a mediator
Flujas-Contreras, J. M., Recio-Berlanga, Á., Andrés, M. P., Fernández-Torres, M., Sánchez-López, P., & Gómez, I. (2023) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2023.07.006 · Cited by 27
Parenting stress within mother-father dyads raising a young child with autism spectrum disorder
Patel, S., Rivard, M., Mello, C., & Morin, D. (2022) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2022.102051 · Cited by 36
Positive and negative cognitive appraisal of the impact of children with autism spectrum disorder on the family
Schlebusch, L., & Dada, S. (2018) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2018.04.005 · Cited by 27
Socioeconomic Status, Family Functioning and Delayed Care Among Children With Special Needs
Donley, T., King, D. M., Nyathi, N., Okafor, A., & Mbizo, J. (2018) · Social Work in Public Health · doi:10.1080/19371918.2018.1504703 · Cited by 28
“Evidence from some of these studies suggest that parents of CSHCN typically report higher rates of stress compared to parents of children without special health needs (Estes et al., 2013; Hayes & Watson, 2013; Neece, Green, & Baker, 2012).”
Result
A Qualitative Investigation of Swimming Experiences of Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders and Their Families
Mische-Lawson, L., D’Adamo, J., Campbell, K., Hermreck, B., Holz, S., Moxley, J., Nance, K., Nolla, M., & Travis, A. (2019) · Clinical Medicine Insights: Pediatrics · doi:10.1177/1179556519872214 · Cited by 24
The Association between Autism Spectrum Disorder Symptoms in High-Functioning Male Adolescents and their Mothers’ Anxiety and Depression
Bitsika, V., & Sharpley, C. F. (2017) · Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities · doi:10.1007/s10882-017-9537-1 · Cited by 30
A Preliminary Study of Activation, Stress, and Self-Management of Parents of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Ruble, L. A., Murray, D. S., McGrew, J. H., Brevoort, K., & Wong, V. W. (2018) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-017-0814-5 · Cited by 28
Coping resources and stress due to demands in parents to children with autism spectrum disorder
Sartor, T., Sons, S., Kuhn, J., & Tröster, H. (2023) · Frontiers in Rehabilitation Sciences · doi:10.3389/fresc.2023.1240977 · Cited by 26
Through a trauma-based lens: A qualitative analysis of the experience of parenting a child with an autism spectrum disorder
Stewart, M., Knight, T., McGillivray, J., Forbes, D., & Austin, D. (2016) · Journal of Intellectual & Developmental Disability · doi:10.3109/13668250.2016.1232379 · Cited by 29
“The effect sizes for the above comparisons were large (d = 0.35– 1.48), suggesting that, for some parents of children with ASD, parenting stress may be a clinically significant experience, which increases risk of depression and poor overall wellbeing (Hayes & Watson, 2013).”
BackgroundInfluential
Psychological Distress in Jordanian Parents of Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder: The Role of Trait Mindfulness
Rayan, A., & Ahmad, M. M. (2016) · Perspectives In Psychiatric Care · doi:10.1111/ppc.12187 · Cited by 26
Using a model of family adaptation to examine outcomes of caregivers of individuals with autism spectrum disorder transitioning into adulthood
Yu, Y., McGrew, J. H., Rand, K. L., & Mosher, C. E. (2018) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2018.06.007 · Cited by 32
“Mediation analyses were performed with the SPSS PROCESS module using a parallel mediation model with multiple mediators, thus allowing for comparison of the size of indirect effects and increased power for tests of indirect effects (Hayes, 2013).”
Method
Backing the backbones—A feasibility study on the effectiveness of dance movement psychotherapy on parenting stress in caregivers of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Aithal, S., Karkou, V., Kuppusamy, G., & Pushpavathi, M. (2019) · The Arts in Psychotherapy · doi:10.1016/j.aip.2019.04.003 · Cited by 30
Parents' Beliefs About Children
Miller, S. A. (2019) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190874513.001.0001 · Cited by 26
Mental health outcomes among parents of a child who has a developmental disability: Comparing different types of developmental disability
Marquis, S., McGrail, K. M., & Hayes, M. V. (2019) · Disability and health journal · doi:10.1016/j.dhjo.2019.100874 · Cited by 30
Parent-child interaction during the first year of life in infants at elevated likelihood of autism spectrum disorder
Pijl, M., Bontinck, C., Rommelse, N. N. J., Ali, J. B., Cauvet, É., Niedźwiecka, A., Falck‐Ytter, T., Jones, E. J. H., van den Boomen, C., Bölte, S., et al. (2020) · Infant Behavior and Development · doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2020.101521 · Cited by 33
Parent-teacher interactions, family stress, well-being, and parental depression as contributing factors to parental involvement mechanisms in education of children with autism
Đorđević, M., Glumbić, N., Memišević, H., Brojčin, B., & Krstov, A. (2021) · International Journal of Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1080/20473869.2021.1896962 · Cited by 26
“…research shows that parents of children with ASD have higher stress levels than parents of typically developing (TD) children (Hall and Graff 2011, Hayes and Watson 2013, Sanders and Morgan 1997, Sivberg 2002), higher risk of depression (Ingersoll et al. 2011, Meltzer 2011, Padden and James…”
Background
Parents’ Voice: Parents’ Emotional and Practical Coping with a Child with Special Needs
Heiman, T. (2021) · Psychology · doi:10.4236/psych.2021.125042 · Cited by 41
Examining the Mediating Role of Mindful Parenting: A Study on the Relationship Between Parental Emotion Regulation Difficulties and Problem Behaviors of Children with ASD
Aydın, A. (2022) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-022-05455-9 · Cited by 37
Social Support and Parenting Stress in Hispanic Parents of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Martinez, V. C., & Turnage, D. M. (2022) · Issues in Mental Health Nursing · doi:10.1080/01612840.2022.2100949 · Cited by 26

Authors: Hayes, S. A., & Watson, S. L.
Affiliations: University of Alberta (CA)
Laurentian University (CA)
Corresponding author: Hayes, Stephanie A.
Venue: Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published: 2012-07-13
Volume: 43
Issue: 3
Pages: 629-642
ISSN: 0162-3257 (ISSN-L)
1573-3432
DOI: 10.1007/s10803-012-1604-y
OpenAlex: W2069698478
Cited by: 1,847
References: 97
Citations by year: 2026: 164 · 2025: 184 · 2024: 185 · 2023: 189 · 2022: 166 · 2021: 194 · 2020: 149 · 2019: 152 · 2018: 145 · 2017: 92 · 2016: 102 · 2015: 64 · 2014: 43 · 2013: 15
FWCI: 5.68
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
Locations: Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Family and Disability Support Research
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Child Nutrition and Feeding Issues
Keywords: parental stress, autism spectrum disorder, typically developing children, Down syndrome, cerebral palsy, intellectual disability, family stress, comparison groups, effect size
MeSH terms: Adaptation, Psychological, Adult, Child, Child Development Disorders, Pervasive, Humans, Parents, Social Support, Stress, Psychological, Parenting

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The Impact of Parenting Stress: A Meta-analysis of Studies Comparing the Experience of Parenting Stress in Parents of Children With and Without Autism Spectrum Disorder

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