Cited by 118Family and Disability Support ResearchAutism Spectrum Disorder ResearchFamily Dynamics and Relationships

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Gender Differences When Parenting Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Multilevel Modeling Approach

Jones, Leah, Totsika, Vasiliki, Hastings, Richard P., Petalas, Michael A.·2013·Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders

DOI 10.1007/s10803-012-1756-9

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Abstract

Parenting a child with autism may differentially affect mothers and fathers. Existing studies of mother-father differences often ignore the interdependence of data within families. We investigated gender differences within-families using multilevel linear modeling. Mothers and fathers of children with autism (161 couples) reported on their own well-being, and their child's functioning. Mothers reported higher levels of distress compared with fathers, and child behavior problems predicted psychological distress for both mothers and fathers. We found little evidence of child functioning variables affecting mothers and fathers differently. Gender differences in the impact of child autism on parents appear to be robust. More family systems research is required to fully understand these gender differences and the implications for family support.

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BackgroundResult
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Background
Parental perception of stress and emotional-behavioural difficulties of children with autism spectrum disorder and specific language impairment
Renzo, M. D., di Castelbianco, F. B., Vanadia, E., Petrillo, M., Racinaro, L., & Rea, M. (2020) · Autism & Developmental Language Impairments · doi:10.1177/2396941520971502 · Cited by 11
“…including depression, anxiety and stress-related symptoms, compared to parents of children with typical development (Ingersoll & Hambrick, 2011; Jones et al., 2013; Lau et al., 2014; Silva & Schalock, 2012; Zablotsky et al., 2013), with Down syndrome (Dabrowska & Pisula, 2010) or other…”
Background
Underrepresented Caregivers in Research on Prenatal Alcohol Exposure: A Meta-Analysis and Scoping Review
Rennie, S., Budhoo, C., Theule, J., Hanlon‐Dearman, A., Ward, M. A., & Cheung, K. (2024) · Advances in Neurodevelopmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s41252-024-00394-1 · Cited by 10
“Family research in other neurodevelopmental populations, such as ADHD and autism spectrum disorder (ASD), mainly consists of partnered birth parents with high socioeconomic status (Heath et al., 2015; Jones et al., 2013).”
A Study on Stress Level, Happiness, Challenges, and Emotional Bonds of Parents having Children with Disabilities Availing Services at NIEPMD, Chennai
Kalpurniya, S., Ramachandran, R., & Chandramohan, N. (2023) · Integrated Journal for Research in Arts and Humanities · doi:10.55544/ijrah.3.5.7 · Cited by 9
Family Factors and Communicative Skills in Children with Autism Without Intellectual Disability
Baixauli, I., Mira, Á., Berenguer, C., Roselló, B., & Miranda, A. (2019) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-019-04216-5 · Cited by 13
Buffering Effect of Spousal Support on Stress Levels in Mothers of Children with a Diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorder in Kerala, India
Jose, P., Sundaram, S., & Varma, R. P. (2021) · Journal of Neurosciences in Rural Practice · doi:10.1055/s-0041-1727559 · Cited by 8
“1,17,18 This paper draws data of mothers of children diagnosed with ASD who had participated in a cross-sectional study on parental stress and coping in Kerala, India.”
Modeling linkages between self-efficacy, normalization, and well-being factors among Israeli mothers of children with neurodevelopmental disorders
Hamama, L. (2022) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2022.104295 · Cited by 8
A critical feminist study of mothers raising a child on the autism spectrum in Iran
Khougar, A., Ahadi, P., & Ahadi, M. (2024) · npj Women s Health · doi:10.1038/s44294-024-00025-z · Cited by 6
Peran yang Terlupakan: Pengasuhan Ayah pada Keluarga dengan Anak Berkebutuhan Khusus di Indonesia
Asfari, H. (2022) · Psyche 165 Journal · doi:10.35134/jpsy165.v15i1.140 · Cited by 6
“Pemaparan di atas memperlihatkan apabila perbedaan pada ayah dan ibu bukan disebabkan karena permasalahan fisiologis atau biologis, tetapi lebih disebabkan karena konstruksi gender [13].”
Background
Do Virtual Reality Relaxation Experiences Alleviate Stress in Parents of Children with Autism? A Pilot Study
Lovell, B., & Wetherell, M. A. (2024) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-024-02876-1 · Cited by 5
“We collected data with respect to a range of socio-demographic (e.g., age, gender, relationship status) and lifestyle (e.g., smoking, alcohol, exercise) variables have shown to be in ﬂ uential for caregivers ’ psychological well-being (Jones et al., 2013).”
Experiences of Korean Fathers of Children With Autism in the United States
Kang, V. Y., Kim, S., & Thomas, M. K. (2022) · Inclusion · doi:10.1352/2326-6988-10.3.183 · Cited by 5
Validation française du Caregiving Strain Questionnaire sur une population de parents d’enfants avec troubles du spectre de l’autisme
Fourcade, C., Ferrand, C., Afzali, M. H., Kruck, J., & Rogé, B. (2017) · Psychologie Française · doi:10.1016/j.psfr.2017.10.001 · Cited by 7
Familles et trouble du spectre de l'autisme
Fourcade, C., Kruck, J., & Rogé, B. (2019) · Dunod eBooks · doi:10.3917/dunod.dergu.2019.01.0177 · Cited by 8
Parental stress, mental health, and child traits in Italian mothers and fathers of autistic children
Perzolli, S., Bertamini, G., Venuti, P., & Bentenuto, A. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1593255 · Cited by 5
“Jones et al. (2013) suggested that behavioral problems and adaptive diﬃculties in autistic children are more strongly associated with maternal anxiety than paternal anxiety.”
I am because I have to be: Exploring one mother‐worker's identity of the surrendered self through stories of mothering neurodiverse children
Schill, A., Peticca‐Harris, A., Elias, S. R. S. T. A., & DeGama, N. C. (2024) · Gender Work and Organization · doi:10.1111/gwao.13139 · Cited by 5
The Relationship between Parenting Stress and Parenting Burnout in Parents of Children with Autism: The Chain Mediating Role of Social Support and Coping Strategies
Zhang, J., Wang, L., Liu, S., Yang, Y., Fan, J., & Zhang, Y. (2025) · International Journal of Mental Health Promotion · doi:10.32604/ijmhp.2025.060064 · Cited by 4
“Failure to effectively cope with and alleviate parenting stress can result in long-term exposure to stress, eventually leading to the emergence of parenting burnout [30].”
Ajustement psychosocial des mères d’un enfant à haut potentiel intellectuel : rôle des caractéristiques sociobiographiques des mères
Galiano, A. R., Berger-Thoral, A., & Conceição, S. B.-D. (2020) · Bulletin de psychologie · doi:10.3917/bupsy.567.0181 · Cited by 4
COMPRENDRE LES DÉFIS CONJUGAUX DES PARENTS D’ENFANTS AYANT UN TSA : PROPOSITION D’UN MODÈLE ÉCOSYSTÉMIQUE
Brien-Bérard, M., & Rivières‐Pigeon, C. D. (2021) · Revue québécoise de psychologie · doi:10.7202/1075468ar · Cited by 4
Child Behavior Problems as Predictors of Stress in Parents of Children with Developmental and Intellectual Disabilities in Four Emirates of the United Arab Emirates
Dukmak, S. J., Mousa, A., & Gharaibeh, M. (2022) · Journal of Mental Health Research in Intellectual Disabilities · doi:10.1080/19315864.2022.2098434 · Cited by 4
“…with disabilities suffer greater stress and anxiety than those whose children achieve normal developmental milestones (Hattangadi et al., 2020; Jones et al., 2013; Khajehei, 2015; Samadi et al., 2014), because children with DDs/IDs characteristically require more parental care and attention…”
Background
Examining the Factors Influencing the Stress Levels in Families of Children with Autism
Arslan, K., & Tuncay, T. (2023) · Uluslararası İnsan Çalışmaları Dergisi · doi:10.35235/uicd.1318620 · Cited by 4
Being a “Lay Expert”: A Choice for Chinese Parents of Young Autistic Children
Zhang, Y., Chen, J., & Li, X. (2025) · Intellectual and developmental disabilities · doi:10.1352/1934-9556-63.1.1 · Cited by 3
Seeing it my way: A perspective taking intervention alleviates psychological distress in caregivers of autistic children
Lovell, B., Newman, A., & Wetherell, M. A. (2022) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2022.104396 · Cited by 4
Comparing Anxiety Levels during the COVID-19 Pandemic among Mothers of Children with and without Neurodevelopmental Disorders
Bogavac, I., Jeličić, L., Đorđević, J., Veselinović, I., Marisavljević, M., & Subotić, M. (2023) · Children · doi:10.3390/children10081292 · Cited by 3
“Past studies have reported that mothers of children with developmental disabilities had higher anxiety and stress levels than fathers [42,43] and pointed to a positive link with maternal anxiety [44].”
Background
Mindfulness as a Potential Moderator Between Child Behavior Problems and Maternal Well-Being.
Griffith, G., Saville, C., Halstead, E., & Hastings, R. (2023) · American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1352/1944-7558-128.6.411 · Cited by 3
Otizm Spektrum Bozukluğu Olan Çocuğa Sahip Ebeveynlerin Evde Eğitim Yaşantısında Bir Örnek Olarak Pandemi
İnan, B. (2024) · Buca eğitim fakültesi dergisi (Online)/Buca Eğitim Fakültesi dergisi · doi:10.53444/deubefd.1400524 · Cited by 3
Evidence for the Protective and Compensatory Functions of Resilience in Children with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities
Halstead, E. J., Hastings, R. P., & Griffith, G. M. (2018) · Advances in Neurodevelopmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s41252-018-0065-5 · Cited by 3
“The fathers who participated in the survey were excluded from this analysis due to the differences seen in previous IDD research between mothers and fathers (e.g., Jones et al. 2013).”
Result
Can Autistic Traits Severity Predict Autism Parenting Stress?
Ibrahim, R. K., & Al-Juboori, A. K. (2023) · Journal of Contemporary Medical Sciences · doi:10.22317/jcms.v9i4.1392 · Cited by 3
Emotional Availability in Autism Intervention: A Mother–Father Comparative Analysis
Perzolli, S., Bertamini, G., Venuti, P., & Bentenuto, A. (2025) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci15020133 · Cited by 5
Normalization and perceived social support among family members of children with autism spectrum disorder
Hamama, L. (2025) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.reia.2025.202654 · Cited by 2
The effect of recasting by mothers with different conversational styles on the communication behavior of autistic children: Lag sequential analysis
Li, X., Peng, Y., Lu, Y., & Zhang, Y. (2023) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.3052 · Cited by 2
“As mothers tend to be more involved in the care of children with special needs (Jones et al., 2013), we included mothers in the study only for the sake of consistency.”
Background
Differences in Life Transition Process of Parents Caring for Children with Autism: Based on the Socio-Demographic Characteristics
Lee, A. R., & Hong, S. W. (2015) · Child Health Nursing Research · doi:10.4094/chnr.2015.21.4.331 · Cited by 2
The Severity of Behavior Problems of Children with ASD and Their Mothers’ Stress Coping Styles and the Impact upon Maternal Parenting Stress
Shin, G. E., & Park, J. H. (2015) · Korean Journal of Child Studies · doi:10.5723/kjcs.2015.36.5.189 · Cited by 2
“또한 대 부분의 경우 자폐스펙트럼장애 자녀를 주로 양 육하는 부모는 어머니이고 스트레스 수준에 있 어서도 아버지에 비해 더 높은 스트레스 수준을 보인다고 보고되고 있는 점을(Jones et al., 2013) 고려하여 어머니만을 대상으로 하고자 한다.”
Sintomatologia psicopatológica e suporte social em pais de crianças portadoras de perturbação do espetro do autismo
Pereira, A. I. L., Fernandes, O. M., & Relva, I. C. (2018) · Análise Psicológica · doi:10.14417/ap.1371 · Cited by 2
Neighborhoods, Family Functioning, and Mothers’ Mental Health for Families with a Child with an Autism Spectrum DisorderPreprint
Whitehead, A. L. (2016) · SocArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31235/osf.io/w4tbd · Cited by 3

Authors: Jones, L., Totsika, V., Hastings, R. P., & Petalas, M. A.
Affiliations: Bangor University (GB)
Corresponding author: Jones, Leah
ORCID: Totsika, Vasiliki
Hastings, Richard P.
Petalas, Michael A.
Venue: Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published: 2013-01-10
Volume: 43
Issue: 9
Pages: 2090-2098
ISSN: 0162-3257 (ISSN-L)
1573-3432
DOI: 10.1007/s10803-012-1756-9
OpenAlex: W2090116207
Cited by: 116
References: 64
Citations by year: 2026: 2 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 14 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 11 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 11 · 2016: 12 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 9
FWCI: 11.11
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
Locations: Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Family and Disability Support Research
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
Social Sciences › Demography › Family Dynamics and Relationships
Keywords: autism spectrum disorder, parenting, gender differences, mothers, fathers, parental psychological distress, child behavior problems, family systems, parental well-being, child functioning
MeSH terms: Adult, Child, Child Behavior Disorders, Child Development Disorders, Pervasive, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Parents, Sex Characteristics, Stress, Psychological, Parenting

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Gender Differences When Parenting Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Multilevel Modeling Approach

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