Parenting Stress in Mothers and Fathers of Toddlers with Autism Spectrum Disorders: Associations with Child Characteristics
Abstract
Elevated parenting stress is observed among mothers of older children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), but little is known about parents of young newly-diagnosed children. Associations between child behavior and parenting stress were examined in mothers and fathers of 54 toddlers with ASD (mean age = 26.9 months). Parents reported elevated parenting stress. Deficits/delays in children's social relatedness were associated with overall parenting stress, parent-child relationship problems, and distress for mothers and fathers. Regulatory problems were associated with maternal stress, whereas externalizing behaviors were associated with paternal stress. Cognitive functioning, communication deficits, and atypical behaviors were not uniquely associated with parenting stress. Clinical assessment of parental stress, acknowledging differences in parenting experiences for mothers and fathers of young children with ASD, is needed.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Social functioning consistently arises as associated with parenting stress in parents of toddlers with or at risk for developmental delays including autism-related concerns.
“which supports the notion that social functioning consistently arises as associated with parenting stress in parents of toddlers with or at risk for developmental delays including autism-related concerns.”
From Parenting Stress, Child Social Functioning, and Part C Early Intervention in Predominantly Low-Income Families of Children With or at High Risk for Developmental Delay From Minoritized Racial and Ethnic Groups (2023) · cites this paper as Davis & Carter, 2008
Child social functioning in particular predicts increased parenting stress.
“Among the various domains of child functioning, child social functioning in particular has been found to predict increased parenting stress, which may partially explain the difference in reported parenting stress between parents with autism-specific and other developmental concerns for their child (Davis & Carter, 2008; DesChamps et al., 2020).”
From Parenting Stress, Child Social Functioning, and Part C Early Intervention in Predominantly Low-Income Families of Children With or at High Risk for Developmental Delay From Minoritized Racial and Ethnic Groups (2023) · cites this paper as Davis & Carter, 2008
Cites
The CES-D Scale: A Self-Report Depression Scale for Research in the General Population
Radloff, L. S. (1977) · Applied Psychological Measurement · doi:10.1177/014662167700100306 · Cited by 53,267 · see citing works
An inventory for measuring clinical anxiety: Psychometric properties.
Beck, A. T., Epstein, N., Brown, G., & Steer, R. A. (1988) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.56.6.893 · Cited by 14,407 · see citing works
Lord, C., Rutter, M., & Le Couteur, A. (1994) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/bf02172145 · Cited by 9,065 · see citing works
Baker, B. L., McIntyre, L. L., Blacher, J., Crnic, K., Edelbrock, C., & Low, C. (2003) · Journal of Intellectual Disability Research · doi:10.1046/j.1365-2788.2003.00484.x · Cited by 930 · see citing works
Crnic, K. A., Gaze, C., & Hoffman, C. (2005) · Infant and Child Development · doi:10.1002/icd.384 · Cited by 853 · see citing works
Goodman, S. H. (2007) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.3.022806.091401 · Cited by 609 · see citing works
Dumas, J. E., Wolf, L. C., Fisman, S. N., & Culligan, A. (1991) · Exceptionality · doi:10.1080/09362839109524770 · Cited by 390 · see citing works
Hastings, R. P., & Johnson, E. (2001) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1023/a:1010799320795 · Cited by 356 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Hayes, S. A., & Watson, S. L. (2013) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-012-1604-y · Cited by 1,847 · see citing works
Karst, J. S., & Van Hecke, A. V. (2012) · Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10567-012-0119-6 · Cited by 977 · see citing works
Estes, A., Olson, E., Sullivan, K., Greenson, J., Winter, J., Dawson, G., & Munson, J. (2013) · Brain and Development · doi:10.1016/j.braindev.2012.10.004 · Cited by 456 · see citing works
“Existing evidence suggests parents of toddlers with ASD report increased stress associated with deficits in children’s social relatedness, but not cognitive functioning, communication deficits, or atypical behaviors [24].”
The quality of life of parents of children with autism spectrum disorder: A systematic review
Vasilopoulou, E., & Nisbet, J. (2016) · Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2015.11.008 · Cited by 405 · see citing works
Salazar, F., Baird, G., Chandler, S., Tseng, E., O’sullivan, T., Howlin, P., Pickles, A., & Simonoff, E. (2015) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-015-2361-5 · Cited by 364 · see citing works
The factors predicting stress, anxiety and depression in the parents of children with autism
Falk, N. H., Norris, K., & Quinn, M. G. (2014) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-014-2189-4 · Cited by 369 · see citing works
Parenting stress among parents of children with Neurodevelopmental Disorders
Craig, F., Operto, F. F., De Giacomo, A., Margari, L., Frolli, A., Conson, M., Ivagnes, S., Monaco, M., & Margari, F. (2016) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2016.05.016 · Cited by 326 · see citing works
Neece, C. L. (2014) · Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities · doi:10.1111/jar.12064 · Cited by 307 · see citing works
Self-compassion and well-being in parents of children with autism
Neff, K. D., & Faso, D. J. (2015) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-014-0359-2 · Cited by 291 · see citing works
Keen, D., Couzens, D., Muspratt, S., & Rodger, S. (2010) · Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2009.09.009 · Cited by 271 · see citing works
Burgdorf, V., Szabó, M., & Abbott, M. J. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01336 · Cited by 234 · see citing works
“Parenting stress is associated with negative outcomes for parents and their children (Davis and Carter, 2008; Deater-Deckard et al., 2016).”
BackgroundWeiss, J. A., Cappadocia, M. C., MacMullin, J. A., Viecili, M., & Lunsky, Y. (2012) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361311422708 · Cited by 228 · see citing works
Meirsschaut, M., Roeyers, H., & Warreyn, P. (2010) · Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2010.01.002 · Cited by 203 · see citing works
Respite Care, Marital Quality, and Stress in Parents of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders
Harper, A., Dyches, T. T., Harper, J., Roper, S. O., & South, M. (2013) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-013-1812-0 · Cited by 200 · see citing works
Jones, L., Hastings, R. P., Totsika, V., Keane, L., & Rhule, N. (2014) · American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1352/1944-7558-119.2.171 · Cited by 192 · see citing works
Giovagnoli, G., Postorino, V., Fatta, L. M., Sanges, V., De Peppo, L., Vassena, L., Rose, P. D., Vicari, S., & Mazzone, L. (2015) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2015.08.006 · Cited by 190 · see citing works
Cappe, E., Wolff, M., Bobet, R., & Adrien, J.-L. (2011) · Quality of Life Research · doi:10.1007/s11136-011-9861-3 · Cited by 176 · see citing works
Beer, M., Ward, L., & Moar, K. (2013) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-012-0192-4 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Maternal verbal responses to communication of infants at low and heightened risk of autism
Leezenbaum, N. B., Campbell, S. B., Butler, D., & Iverson, J. M. (2014) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361313491327 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Issues and theoretical constructs regarding parent education for autism spectrum disorders
Steiner, A. M., Koegel, L. K., Koegel, R. L., & Ence, W. A. (2012) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-011-1194-0 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Jones, L., Totsika, V., Hastings, R. P., & Petalas, M. A. (2013) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-012-1756-9 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Bluth, K., Roberson, P. N. E., Billen, R. M., & Sams, J. M. (2013) · Journal of Family Theory & Review · doi:10.1111/jftr.12015 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Acceptance or Despair? Maternal Adjustment to Having a Child Diagnosed with Autism
Da Paz, N. S., Siegel, B., Coccia, M. A., & Epel, E. S. (2018) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-017-3450-4 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Hu, X., Han, Z. R., Bai, L., & Gao, M. M. (2019) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-019-04103-z · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Interventions to Promote Well-Being in Parents of Children with Autism: a Systematic Review
Frantz, R., Hansen, S. G., & Machalicek, W. (2018) · Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s40489-017-0123-3 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Narratives of mothers of children with autism spectrum disorders: Focus on eating behavior
Lázaro, C. P., & Pondé, M. P. (2017) · Trends in Psychiatry and Psychotherapy · doi:10.1590/2237-6089-2017-0004 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Argumedes, M., Lanovaz, M. J., & Larivée, S. (2018) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-018-3513-1 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Schiller, V. F., Dorstyn, D. S., & Taylor, A. M. (2021) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-020-04601-5 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
A Virtual Resiliency Intervention for Parents of Children with Autism: A Randomized Pilot Trial
Kuhlthau, K. A., Luberto, C. M., Traeger, L., Millstein, R. A., Perez, G. K., Lindly, O. J., Chad-Friedman, E., Proszynski, J., & Park, E. R. (2020) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-019-03976-4 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Alibekova, R., Kai Chan, C., Crape, B., Kadyrzhanuly, K., Gusmanov, A., An, S., Bulekbayeva, S., Akhmetzhanova, Z., Ainabekova, A., Yerubayev, Z., et al. (2022) · Global Mental Health · doi:10.1017/gmh.2022.51 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Gatzoyia, D., Kotsis, K., Koullourou, I., Goulia, P., Carvalho, A. F., Soulis, S., & Hyphantis, T. (2014) · Disability and health journal · doi:10.1016/j.dhjo.2013.10.008 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Lewallen, A. C., & Neece, C. L. (2015) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-015-0116-8 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Robinson, S., Hastings, R. P., Weiss, J. A., Pagavathsing, J., & Lunsky, Y. (2018) · Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities · doi:10.1111/jar.12423 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Brei, N. G., Schwarz, G. N., & Klein-Tasman, B. P. (2015) · Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities · doi:10.1007/s10882-015-9439-z · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Lin, Y.-N., Iao, L.-S., Lee, Y.-H., & Wu, C.-C. (2021) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-020-04720-z · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Behavioral interventions for children with autism spectrum disorders
LeBlanc, L. A., & Gillis, J. M. (2012) · Pediatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.pcl.2011.10.006 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Strunk, J. A., Pickler, R., McCain, N. L., Ameringer, S., & Myers, B. J. (2014) · Families, Systems, & Health · doi:10.1037/a0037180 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Whitney, R. V., & Smith, G. (2015) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-014-2332-2 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Porter, N., Loveland, K. A., Saroukhani, S., Posey, Y., Morimoto, K., & Rahbar, M. H. (2022) · Autism Research and Treatment · doi:10.1155/2022/7089053 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Neece, C. L., Fenning, R. M., Morrell, H. E., & Benjamin, L. R. (2024) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613231191558 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Shortened telomeres in families with a propensity to autism
Nelson, C. A., Varcin, K. J., Coman, N. K., DeVivo, I., & Tager-Flusberg, H. (2015) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2015.04.006 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Family characteristics and children’s receipt of autism services in low-resourced families
Karp, E. A., Dudovitz, R., Nelson, B. B., Shih, W., Gulsrud, A., Orlich, F., Colombi, C., & Kuo, A. A. (2018) · Pediatrics · doi:10.1542/peds.2016-4300d · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Bonnot, O., Adrien, V., Venelle, V., Bonneau, D., Gollier-Briant, F., & Mouchabac, S. (2021) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/27803 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Brief Report: Factors Influencing Healthcare Satisfaction in Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Gerber, A. H., McCormick, C. E. B., Levine, T. P., Morrow, E. M., Anders, T. F., & Sheinkopf, S. J. (2017) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-017-3087-3 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Kuhn, J., Hickey, E., Lindly, O., Stransky, M., Masaro, M., Patts, G. J., Cabral, H., Crossman, M., Augustyn, M., Feinberg, E., et al. (2023) · Journal of Early Intervention · doi:10.1177/10538151231155406 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“This finding is consistent with prior literature (Davis & Carter, 2008; Hall & Graff, 2011), which supports the notion that social functioning consistently arises Note.”
Socie, C., Descamps, A., Thouvenin, B., Peigné, C. D. F., Abadie, V., & Ouss, L. (2025) · Archives de Pédiatrie · doi:10.1016/j.arcped.2025.02.001 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
- Authors
- Davis, N. O., & Carter, A. S.
- Affiliations
- Boston University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Carter, Alice S.
- Venue
- Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders
- Published
- 2008-02-01
- Volume
- 38
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 1278-1291
- ISSN
- 0162-3257 (ISSN-L)
- 1573-3432
- OpenAlex
- W2058714004
- Cited by
- 1,212
- References
- 8
- Citations by year
- 2026: 42 · 2025: 59 · 2024: 74 · 2023: 62 · 2022: 76 · 2021: 72 · 2020: 84 · 2019: 99 · 2018: 84 · 2017: 88 · 2016: 93 · 2015: 81 · 2014: 85 · 2013: 73 · 2012: 50
- FWCI
- 32.60
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Ministry of Earth Sciences
- Ministry of Education, India
- National Institute of Mental Health (U54MH066398, U54MH66398)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Family and Disability Support Research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Child Nutrition and Feeding Issues
- Keywords
- parental stress, autism spectrum disorder, toddlers, mothers, fathers, social relatedness, regulatory challenges, externalizing problems, maternal stress, paternal stress, newly diagnosed children
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Anxiety, Autistic Disorder, Child Behavior Disorders, Child, Preschool, Depression, Fathers, Female, Humans, Infant, Internal-External Control, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Middle Aged, Mothers, Parent-Child Relations, Personality Inventory, Psychometrics, Stress, Psychological, Parenting, Cost of Illness, Early Intervention, Educational
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
