Cited by 1,329Environmental and Cultural Studies in Latin America and BeyondLand Use and Ecosystem ServicesIndigenous Studies and Ecology

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Connecting Diverse Knowledge Systems for Enhanced Ecosystem Governance: The Multiple Evidence Base Approach

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Tengö, Maria, Brondizio, Eduardo S., Elmqvist, Thomas, Malmer, Pernilla, Spierenburg, Marja·2014·AMBIO

DOI 10.1007/s13280-014-0501-3PMC PMC4132468

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Abstract

Indigenous and local knowledge systems as well as practitioners' knowledge can provide valid and useful knowledge to enhance our understanding of governance of biodiversity and ecosystems for human well-being. There is, therefore, a great need within emerging global assessment programs, such as the IPBES and other international efforts, to develop functioning mechanisms for legitimate, transparent, and constructive ways of creating synergies across knowledge systems. We present the multiple evidence base (MEB) as an approach that proposes parallels whereby indigenous, local and scientific knowledge systems are viewed to generate different manifestations of knowledge, which can generate new insights and innovations through complementarities. MEB emphasizes that evaluation of knowledge occurs primarily within rather than across knowledge systems. MEB on a particular issue creates an enriched picture of understanding, for triangulation and joint assessment of knowledge, and a starting point for further knowledge generation.

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Fig. 1 An illustration of a multiple evidence base approach, where diverse knowledge systems contribute to generate an enriched picture of a selected problem or issue of concern. The enriched picture can serve as a legitimate starting point for further analysis and knowledge generationCC BY · PubMed Central

Fig. 2 Outlining three phases of a multiple evidence base approach that emphasizes the need for co-production of problem definitions as well as joint analysis and evaluation of the enriched picture created in the assessment process. Phase 1 involves defining problems and goals in a collaborative manner that recognizes cross-scale interactions of drivers and local responses and sets the stage for maintaining ongoing dialogue. This includes establishing partnerships between relevant communities, organizations and networks as appropriate and needed at different levels; investigating common interests and concerns, including power relations among actors; recognizing differences in experiences, methods, and goals across actors (Laidler 2006). Phase 2 involves bringing together knowledge on an equal platform, using parallel systems of valuing and questions and domains. This includes acknowledging and recognizing the spatial and temporal context of knowledge and implications for scalability; acknowledging and addressing power issues among knowledge systems and holders; consideration of different areas of strength and contribution of different knowledge systems and their overlaps; and acknowledging converging and diverging evidence and perspectives across knowledge systems. Phase 3 involves joint analysis and evaluation of knowledge and insights to generate multi-level synthesis and identify and catalyze processes for generating new knowledge. This includes identifying continuing knowledge gaps, new hypothesis, and potential areas for new collaborations across knowledge systems. To enable these processes, there is a need to develop new tools and approaches for combining and relating multiple data, including qualitative as well as quantitativeCC BY · PubMed Central

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Kwon, K., Gunton, T., Rutherford, M., & Zeeg, T. (2024) · Environmental Management · doi:10.1007/s00267-024-02075-0 · Cited by 3
“…where long-term data is unavailable, a multiple evidence base approach to setting management triggers can enhance understanding of ecological systems and socio-economic conditions, including local and regional scale processes and patterns (Adams et al. 2014; Ban et al. 2018; Tengö et al. 2014).”
Benefits and challenges of reviewing across knowledge systems: ‘Gourmet omnivore’ pigs foraging in the wild
Mólnar, Z., Demeter, L., Szabados, K., Kiš, A., Ajvazović, M., Runjanin, B., Mandušić, V., Biró, M., Öllerer, K., Marinkov, J., et al. (2024) · People and Nature · doi:10.1002/pan3.10717 · Cited by 3
Ecosystem Service and Biodiversity Patterns Observed across Co-Developed Land Use Scenarios in the Piedmont: Lessons Learned for Scale and Framing
Quinn, J. E., Fergus, C., Hyland, E., Vickery, C., Lacher, I. L., & Akre, T. S. (2024) · Land · doi:10.3390/land13091340 · Cited by 3
Stakeholder-engaged research: a multidisciplinary historical analysis
Chung, J. Y. (2024) · Research for All · doi:10.14324/rfa.08.1.06 · Cited by 3
Mātauranga Māori framework for surveillance of plant pathogens
Wood, W., Lustig, A., Latham, M., & Anderson, D. P. (2024) · Frontiers in Forests and Global Change · doi:10.3389/ffgc.2024.1392083 · Cited by 3
Perceptions of Pequi (Caryocar coriaceum Wittm) Decline: Insights from Extractivist Communities in the Araripe-Apodi National Forest, Brazil
Sobral, A., Feitosa, I. S., Ángeles, L. T.-C. M. D. L., Alves, R. R. N., Brito-Júnior, V. M., de Moura, J. M. B., da Silva, T. C., & Albuquerque, U. P. (2023) · Journal for Nature Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.jnc.2023.126538 · Cited by 3
Rich local knowledge despite high transience in an Arctic community experiencing rapid environmental change
Lennert, A., van der Wal, R., Zhang, J., Hausner, V., Ancin-Murguzur, F., & Miles, M. (2023) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-023-02310-9 · Cited by 3
‘I didn’t make much of a difference, but there was a difference in me’: a qualitative study of students’ participation in efforts to mitigate human–elephant conflict in Botswana
Zarestky, J., Tomaszewski, L., Walker, S. E., & Ruyle, L. (2023) · Environment, Development and Sustainability · doi:10.1007/s10668-023-03238-5 · Cited by 3
“Studies focused on conservation conflicts highlight the importance of integrating different types of knowledge systems and capacities to reach conservation solutions (Ains-worth et al., 2020; Tengö et al., 2014).”
Analysis of the interrelationships of stakeholders involved in the management of transhumance in southern Benin
Azalou, M., Séidou, A. A., Worogo, H. S. S., Idrissou, Y., Azando, E. V. B., Pascal, C., & Alkoiret, I. T. (2023) · Tropical Animal Health and Production · doi:10.1007/s11250-023-03533-3 · Cited by 4
The Anthropocene is shifting the paradigm of geosciences and science
Coudrain, A., Duff, M. L., & Mitja, D. (2022) · Comptes rendus Geoscience · doi:10.5802/crgeos.156 · Cited by 3
Environment, absolute? The quality infrastructure of the planetary boundaries
Cornell, S., & Downing, A. (2021) · doi:10.31223/x50p6k · Cited by 3
“org/publications/reports-‐and-‐reviews/strategic-‐coordinating-‐committee-‐on-‐information-‐and-‐data-‐report/ad-‐hoc-‐ strategic-‐coordinating-‐committee-‐on-‐information-‐and-‐data 85 Tengö, M. et al. (2013) Connecting diverse knowledge systems for enhanced ecosystem governance: the Multiple Evidenc…”
Leveraging impact assessment for satisfactory project outcomes: benefits of early planning and participatory decision-making
Mayhew, M., & Perritt, J. C. (2020) · doi:10.1080/14615517.2020.1820848 · Cited by 3
The Role of Swidden Cultivation in Shaping Ethnozoological Knowledge: Integrating Historical Events and Intergenerational Analyses among Quilombolas from Southeast Brazil
Prado, H. M., & Murrieta, R. (2018) · Journal of Ethnobiology · doi:10.2993/0278-0771-38.3.297 · Cited by 3
“…cognitive structures (Berlin 1973; Hunn 2006), its contribution to collaborative conservation projects (Davis and Ruddle 2010; Posey et al. 1984; Tengö et al. 2014), and its forms of distribution and transmission within different populations (D’Andrade 1981; Romney and Moore 1998; Ross and…”
Background
Borrowing trouble. Finding ways out of value systems discord for biodiversity policy-making
Laurans, Y. (2017) · Innovation The European Journal of Social Science Research · doi:10.1080/13511610.2017.1418302 · Cited by 2
Framing a Nordic IPBES-like study : Introductory Study including Scoping for a Nordic Assessment of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, based on IPBES methods and procedures
Schultz, M., Häggblom, M., Lindblad, C., Roth, E., Thrainsson, S., Vihervaara, P., & Vik, N. (2016) · doi:10.6027/tn2016-525 · Cited by 3
“Advancements are made under the IPBES task force on ILK and research such as the Multiple Evidence Base Approach (Tengö et al., 2014).”
Method
Bridging expert knowledge and fishery data to examine changes in nearshore rockfish fisheries in the Gulf of Alaska over fifty years
Gordon, J. Y., Beaudreau, A. H., Williams, B. C., & Meyer, S. C. (2022) · Fisheries Research · doi:10.1016/j.fishres.2022.106333 · Cited by 4
Interweaving Knowledge Systems Through Sustainability Governance
Mourato, J. M., Bussler, A., & de Wit, F. (2020) · Encyclopedia of the UN sustainable development goals · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-71067-9_101-1 · Cited by 3
Policy Paradoxes: Challenges Confronting the Contemporary Arctic
Lovecraft, A., & Cost, D. (2019) · Springer Polar Sciences · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-03107-7_2 · Cited by 3
Autonomous Adaptation Strategies to Multiple Stressors: A Case Study with Marginal Communities in Eastern Uttar Pradesh, India
Singh, R. K., Singh, A., Kumar, A., Kumar, N., Kumar, S., Sheraon, P., & Sharma, D. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-13-5832-6_30 · Cited by 4
Sustainability Storytelling Is Not Just Telling Stories About Sustainability
Bernier, A. (2019) · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-409548-9.12133-5 · Cited by 3
Toward genuine co-production for just and sustainable agri-food system transformation
Ewell, H., Schwieger, D. A. M., Nishi, M., Chimonyo, V. G. P., Mam, K., Dludlu, M. N., Freed, S., & Remans, R. (2026) · Outlook on Agriculture · doi:10.1177/00307270261478653
“Policies should actively integrate diverse forms of knowledge and foster exchange between them — for example, by valuing both local and scienti ﬁ c expertise (Tengö et al., 2014; also see Jersild, this issue).”
Which knowledge matters? Decision-making in conservation and development initiatives
Diebold, C. L., Messerli, P., Harimalala, P. C., Mathez-Stiefel, S.-L., & Zaehringer, J. G. (2026) · PLOS Sustainability and Transformation · doi:10.1371/journal.pstr.0000248 · Cited by 1
“Becoming subjects together”: Reflections on co-creating knowledge with Indigenous peoples
Porsani, J., Fortes, B. S., Sokolova, T., Camargo, M. F. D. C. M. F. D., & Costa, S. L. (2026) · Environmental Science & Policy · doi:10.1016/j.envsci.2026.104377 · Cited by 2
“This question has been explored by a diverse host of scholars (Krenak, 2024; Moreno-Cely et al., 2021; Pala-kiko et al., 2024; Teng ¨ o et al., 2014; Whyte, 2017).”
Rapidly declining seagrass meadows in Brazil: Findings from satellite imagery and local knowledge
Magalhães, K., Deeks, E., Cerqueira, A. S., Silva, G. H. F., Santos, F. A., Dawson, T. P., & Kratina, P. (2026) · People and Nature · doi:10.1002/pan3.70272 · Cited by 2
“…sensing and documentary evidence aligns with emerging frameworks of knowledge co-production, evidence pluralism and interdisciplinary sustainability science (e.g. Heatta et al., 2025 ; Moallemi et al., 2023 ; Tengö et al., 2014 ), which seek to bridge ecological and social understandings of change.”
Combining social, ecological and economic approaches in knowledge co‐production enables the identification of sustainable farming options
Kinabo, N. R., Martin, D. A., Koggani, K. D., Martín‐López, B., Groß, M., Schleyer, C., Hackmann, V., Thiel, A., Böhning‐Gaese, K., & Manning, P. (2026) · People and Nature · doi:10.1002/pan3.70286 · Cited by 2
“Such knowledge integration is not only analytical but also action-oriented and helps form locally grounded solutions, a central theme of the knowledge co-production literature (Norström et al., 2020 ; Tengö et al., 2014 ).”
Transforming Biodiversity and Climate Governance in the Barotse Cultural Landscape of Zambia: Envisioning Futures Using the Nature Futures Framework
Kabisa, M., Pereira, L., Karuri-Sebina, G., Marais-Potgieter, A., Nkgothoe, B., Imataa, E., Nyambe, S., Mushunga, J., Hazemba, W., Chumya, C., et al. (2026) · World Future Review · doi:10.1177/19467567261433197 · Cited by 2
“Therefore, understanding it requires the use of methods, such as participatory scenario development with a variety of tools, that transcend disciplinary and methodological divides (Preiser et al. 2018; Teng¨o et al. 2014).”
Failed Scientific Advocacy, Misappropriation and Erosion of Public Trust: Generalisations About Burning From Tall Wet Eucalypt Forests
Fletcher, M. (2026) · Ecological Management & Restoration · doi:10.1111/emr.70036 · Cited by 3
Improving wetland management through First Nations’ knowledge and a spatial visualisation tool
Adame, M. F., Kavehei, E., Dunn, B., Jackson, S., Duncan, P., Minjerribah-Moorgumpin Elders in Council, Cahill, J., Nadji, N., Brown, C. J., & Lymburner, L. (2026) · Ambio · doi:10.1007/s13280-025-02326-2 · Cited by 2
“I know a lot about medicinal plants. I read, I watch, and I search": towards hybrid knowledge systems in the modern era
Prakofjewa, J., Conte, L., Ludwig, D., Šarka, P., Centorrino, P., Kalle, R., & Sõukand, R. (2026) · Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine · doi:10.1186/s13002-025-00844-7 · Cited by 2
“These patterns align with Tengö et al.’s [68] multiple-evidence-based approach, which emphasises dialogic involvement as a step towards co-production rather than hierarchy across knowledge systems.”
Global overview of progress in respecting the contributions of traditional knowledge in biodiversity governance
Öllerer, K., Malmer, P., Biró, M., Noor, N., Shulbaeva, P., Ferrari, M. F., Subramanian, S., Báldi, A., & Mólnar, Z. (2026) · Conservation Biology · doi:10.1111/cobi.70205 · Cited by 2
“This lack of recognition of rights and agency is also evident in the number of policies and actions that indirectly undermine traditional practices (Báldi et al., 2023; Fernández-Llamazares et al., 2023; Tengö et al., 2014).”
Self-citation
Practices for Braiding Indigenous Knowledges and Western Sciences for Research and Monitoring of Biodiversity in Canada
Bowles, E., Henri, D. A., Provencher, J. F., Alexander, S. M., Love, N. E., Steel, J. R., Chelick, C., Khan, J. S., Taylor, J. J., Zacharuk, B., et al. (2026) · Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.1002/ece3.72358 · Cited by 3
“And Tengö et al. (2014, 2017) provide a contemporary example of the steps involved in the application of one of these models to a problem or question in such a way that respects the spirit of all the treaties and models, using the Multiple Evidence-Based Approach (MEBA).”
Perceptions and pathways: Linking biodiversity to health and well‐being in lower‐income contexts
Browne, A., Hodbod, J., Sait, S., Yiran, G. A. B., & Dallimer, M. (2025) · People and Nature · doi:10.1002/pan3.70217 · Cited by 2
Respecting indigenous knowledge in the era of big data: A call for ethical research practices
Fletcher, M., & Romano, A. (2025) · Journal of Quaternary Science · doi:10.1002/jqs.70032 · Cited by 3
“This knowledge is sometimes referred to as traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) and often involves the invention and deployment of specific technologies (McGregor, 2004; Tengö et al., 2014; Pascoe et al., 2023; Warbrick et al., 2023).”
Protecting the right to science in multilateral environmental agreements addressing chemicals and plastics pollution
Almroth, B. C., Ralston, R., Tilsted, J. P., Balayannis, A., Bertram, M. G., Olsen, T., & Short, D. (2025) · The International Journal of Human Rights · doi:10.1080/13642987.2025.2584007 · Cited by 2
“…epistemologies and power balances are significant, and have created obstacles to their integration, though some scholars and policy makers have sought to identify means to reconcile the tensions between these knowledge systems and flatten the hierarchy (Ijatuyi et al., 2025; Tengö et al., 2014).”
Fisheries decision-makers’ perspectives on the use of historical data to inform assessment and management
Martínez-Candelas, I., Espinoza‐Tenorio, A., & McClenachan, L. (2025) · Ocean & Coastal Management · doi:10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2025.107908 · Cited by 2
Gold mining in the Colombian Amazon: empirical insights on the links between sustainability, equity, and power
García, P. A. S., Schröter, B., Krause, T., Boonstra, W. J., Nielsen, J. Ø., & Loft, L. (2025) · Sustainability Science · doi:10.1007/s11625-025-01749-w · Cited by 4
“Participatory monitoring mechanisms, autonomous co-management arrangements, and plural legal frameworks that respect statutory and customary rights could help redistribute power and authority more equitably (Caniglia et al. 2020; Tengö et al. 2014).”
Finnish experts’ perceptions of IPBES operating principles – Synergies and tensions between the multiple evidence base and credibility, policy relevance and legitimacy
Salomaa, A. (2025) · Environmental Science & Policy · doi:10.1016/j.envsci.2025.104149 · Cited by 2
Salient and contested scientific evidence in debates over sustainable transformation: pesticide policymaking in Switzerland
Truffer, O., Hofmann, B., & Lieberherr, E. (2025) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-025-05159-2 · Cited by 3
“While focusing on scienti ﬁ c evidence in the following, we subscribe to the idea that evidence can and should inform effective policymaking alongside other evidence types (Tengö et al. 2014) and other in ﬂ uential factors in a democratic decision-making process (Head 2016, pp. 474 – 475).”
From diverse interests to collective action: a framework to identify ‘theme bridges’ as entry points to co-design multi-stakeholder partnerships in a shared multifunctional dryland context
Hernández-Valdez, S., Mata‐Páez, R. I., Martínez-Tagüeña, N., Huber-Sannwald, E., Lauterio-Martínez, C. L., Reyes-Gómez, V. M., Borré-González, D., & Rodríguez-Muñoz, M. (2025) · Sustainability Science · doi:10.1007/s11625-025-01706-7 · Cited by 2
“This leads to an integrated understanding and enriched ‘big picture’ of the shared social-ecological system, alongside emerging challenges, opportunities, and pathways towards sustainability (Tengö et al. 2014).”
Challenges of pluralizing knowledge(s) in climate related decision-making
Mansur, A. V., Neidig, J., & Zafra-Calvo, N. (2025) · PLOS Climate · doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000658 · Cited by 2
Synergistic Drive Between Local Knowledge and Landscape Design: Construction and Empirical Evidence of Landscape Design In-Situ Evaluation System for Forest Health Bases
Chen, Y., Ye, Y.-T., & Ye, Y. (2025) · Buildings · doi:10.3390/buildings15111917 · Cited by 2
Rethinking knowledge systems for agroforestry: Insights from the mental models of cacao farmers in Colombia
Rodríguez, T., Bonatti, M., Löhr, K., & Sieber, S. (2025) · Ambio · doi:10.1007/s13280-025-02189-7 · Cited by 2
Broadening the spectrum of conflict and coexistence: A case study example of human-wolf interactions in British Columbia, Canada
Doney, E., Frank, B., & Clark, D. A. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0318566 · Cited by 2
How does global agricultural research and innovation cooperation influence agricultural R&I system transformation in the South? Evidence from UK-China cooperation
Wu, B., Cao, C., Mosey, S., Daniell, T. J., Noy, P., Cui, Y.-Z., Rose, M., & Snape, J. (2025) · Food Policy · doi:10.1016/j.foodpol.2025.102813 · Cited by 2
The evolution of local engagement and the mode of knowledge production in Arctic research: 2011–2020
Brunet, N. D., & Fletcher, Q. (2025) · Facets · doi:10.1139/facets-2024-0114 · Cited by 2
Braiding archaeology, geomorphology and indigenous knowledge to improve the understanding of local-scale coastal change
Jones, B. D., Dickson, M., Ford, M., Hikuroa, D., Ryan, E., Carrington, A., & Chetham, J. (2024) · Cambridge Prisms: Coastal Futures · doi:10.1017/cft.2024.18 · Cited by 2
“In undertaking this kind of work, the “ braided method ” is a theoretical framework that enables the braiding of Indigenous and Western knowledge systems to examine the same physical environment, although from distinct ontological viewpoints (Tengö et al., 2014; Macfarlane et al., 2015).”
Community Behavior Based on Traditional Ecological Knowledge (PET) Towards Environmental Health and Disease Prevention
Suwono, I. (2024) · Global International Journal of Innovative Research · doi:10.59613/global.v2i9.332 · Cited by 2
“The interdisciplinary collaboration between TEK and scientific approaches, as explored by Tengö et al. (2014), provides a promising model for future environmental and public health initiatives.”
Method
A heart model of Earth Stewardship
Scheffer, M., Anderies, J., Bjordam, T., Bollen, J., Carpenter, S. R., Chapin, F., Folke, C., Gazitua, F., Holmgren, M., Marcone, J., et al. (2024) · Earth Stewardship · doi:10.1002/eas2.12019 · Cited by 2
Argentine Ethnobiology: A Future in Peril
Lenta, C. R., Grimaldi, P., & Ladio, A. (2024) · Ethnobiology and Conservation · doi:10.15451/ec2025-09-14.03-1-7 · Cited by 2
The gifts of multiple perspectives: a Two-Eyed Seeing approach to Gumegwsis (Cyclopterus lumpus) ecology in inner Mawipoqtapei (Chaleur Bay), Eastern Canada
Gillis, C.-A., Gagnon, C. A., Chiasson, B., Gosselin, P., Arsenault, L., & Vicaire, J. M. (2024) · Environmental Biology of Fishes · doi:10.1007/s10641-024-01580-9 · Cited by 2
“Weaving ILK and Western Knowledge can improve collective knowledge of social–ecological inter-dependencies, promote innovation, and help determine sustainable future directions (Tengö et al. 2014; Aminpour et al. 2021; Reid et al. 2021).”
Knowledge based interventions for sustainable development cooperation: insights from knowledge systems mapping in Zambia
Suchá, L., Dušková, L., Leventon, J., Seidlová, A., Bubák, Š., & Harmáčková, Z. (2024) · Sustainability Science · doi:10.1007/s11625-024-01536-z · Cited by 2
“These processes would bring together existing knowledge in both the “donor” and “recipient” countries (Boucher and Roch 2017; Ojala and Hooli 2022) and allow for knowledge cross-fertilisation (Tengö et al. 2014).”

Authors: Tengö, M., Brondizio, E. S., Elmqvist, T., Malmer, P., & Spierenburg, M.
Affiliations: Stockholm Resilience Centre (SE)
Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam (NL)
Corresponding author: Tengö, Maria
ORCID: Tengö, Maria
Elmqvist, Thomas
Malmer, Pernilla
Spierenburg, Marja
Venue: AMBIO
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published: 2014-03-22
Volume: 43
Issue: 5
Pages: 579-591
ISSN: 0044-7447 (ISSN-L)
1654-7209
DOI: 10.1007/s13280-014-0501-3
PMC: PMC4132468
OpenAlex: W2122925767
Cited by: 1,329
References: 88
Citations by year: 2026: 163 · 2025: 140 · 2024: 122 · 2023: 140 · 2022: 146 · 2021: 152 · 2020: 124 · 2019: 101 · 2018: 89 · 2017: 61 · 2016: 46 · 2015: 34 · 2014: 11
FWCI: 43.99
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: hybrid
doi.org
Licence: cc-by
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0 (unspecified)
Locations: AMBIO (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
VU Research Portal (publishedVersion, other-oa)
Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
Digital Academic REpository of VU University Amsterdam (Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam) (submittedVersion)
Radboud Repository (Radboud University) (submittedVersion)
Funders: Styrelsen för Internationellt Utvecklingssamarbete
Stiftelsen för Miljöstrategisk Forskning
Topics: Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Environmental and Cultural Studies in Latin America and Beyond
Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Land Use and Ecosystem Services
Social Sciences › Anthropology › Indigenous Studies and Ecology
Keywords: indigenous knowledge, local knowledge, scientific knowledge, knowledge integration, ecosystem governance, biodiversity governance, IPBES, knowledge assessment, human well-being, knowledge synergy
MeSH terms: Conservation of Natural Resources, Ecosystem, Biodiversity

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Connecting Diverse Knowledge Systems for Enhanced Ecosystem Governance: The Multiple Evidence Base Approach

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