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Youth Athlete Development and Nutrition
Open accessAbstract
Adolescence (ages 13–18 years) is a period of significant growth and physical development that includes changes in body composition, metabolic and hormonal fluctuations, maturation of organ systems, and establishment of nutrient deposits, which all may affect future health. In terms of nutrition, adolescence is also an important time in establishing an individual’s lifelong relationship with food, which is particularly important in terms of the connection between diet, exercise, and body image. The challenges of time management (e.g., school, training, work and social commitments) and periods of fluctuating emotions are also features of this period. In addition, an adolescent’s peers become increasingly powerful moderators of all behaviours, including eating. Adolescence is also a period of natural experimentation and this can extend to food choice. Adolescent experiences are not the same and individuals vary considerably in their behaviours. To ensure an adolescent athlete fulfils his/her potential, it is important that stakeholders involved in managing youth athletes emphasize eating patterns that align with and support sound physical, physiological and psychosocial development and are consistent with proven principles of sport nutrition.
Overview
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TL;DR
This narrative review summarizes nutrition priorities for adolescent athletes (ages 13–18), emphasizing long-term health, adequate energy availability, and food-first macronutrient, micronutrient, and fluid guidance during growth and training. It warns that low energy availability, body-composition pressure, and supplement use can threaten health, and that many youth-specific sport-nutrition questions remain understudied.
Key findings
- The review’s key points advise that nutrition guidance for developing athletes prioritise long-term sustainable health and that the elite-performance pathway is complex and not dictated by undue emphasis on body composition. It notes that low energy availability (LEA) and potential relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S) appear common in heavily training youth and can contribute to delayed puberty, menstrual irregularities, poor bone health, short stature, disordered eating, and increased injury risk; in females with a gynecological age of ≤ 14 years, LEA effects may be more pronounced.
- Energy needs vary widely: group estimates for adolescent athletes are ~3640 ± 830 kcal/day for males and ~3100 ± 720 kcal/day for females. A new resting metabolic rate equation from 126 junior athletes (mean age 16.5 years, range 13.1–19.7) is RMR (kcal/day) = 11.1 × body mass (kg) + 8.4 × height (cm) − (340 male or 537 female); adult-based equations may underestimate energy expenditure by up to 300 kcal/day. Protein needs during peak growth include lean-mass gains of ~2.3 g/day in females and ~3.8 g/day in males (~threefold prepubertal); ~0.11 g/kg/h post-exercise or ~1.5 g/kg/day (e.g., ~0.3 g/kg × 5 meals) should suffice with adequate energy. For carbohydrate, a single source (glucose) can be oxidised at up to ~0.6 g/kg/h in young boys, so a 45 kg 12-year-old could use ~30 g CHO/h. Dietary fat guidance is 20–35% of total energy, with saturated/trans fatty acids ≤10%.
- Iron depletion is frequently observed in adolescent athletes; the paper’s table defines stages by serum ferritin <35, <20, and <12 µg/L with haemoglobin/transferrin saturation criteria. Calcium accretion during adolescence is estimated at ~300 mg/day, and recommendations range from 800 to 1300 mg/day. Vitamin D recommendations differ by region: Australia 5 µg/day, US/Canada 15 µg/day, Europe 10–20 µg/day. Trained adolescent athletes can show fluid deficits >4% body weight and sweat rates ≤2.16 L/h; advised fluid intake is ~13 mL/kg per hour of exercise, with body-mass losses limited to ≤2% from pre-exercise values.
- Performance-enhancing supplement use among US children and adolescents (<18 years) was 1.6%. Most products lack rigorous effectiveness and long-term safety evidence in younger populations, and the review states that legal supplements typically offer only 2–5% improvement, over-emphasizing their ability to manipulate performance. It concludes that nutrient needs should be met by food rather than supplements, except for clinical use under qualified guidance.
Methods
- The paper describes itself as a narrative review incorporating physiology, psychology, training science, and sociology to describe current understanding of nutrition priorities for developing adolescent athletes.
- No primary data collection, systematic review protocol, or meta-analysis is reported; evidence is synthesized from published literature, position statements, consensus guidelines, and reference values.
- Several cited numbers come from other studies (e.g., n = 126 RMR cohort; >70 adolescent female athletes; US supplement prevalence 1.6%), but these are secondary citations rather than new analyses.
Limitations
- The paper states many evidence gaps: no specific calcium recommendations for athletes; unclear influence of vitamin D status and benefits of supplementation in deficient youth athletes; no evidence on whether fluid intake modulates heat-illness risk in adolescent athletes; no studies of centrally mediated carbohydrate effects in adolescents; and limited rigorous effectiveness/long-term safety data for supplements in younger populations.
- Evident from the text: as a narrative review, it lacks a systematic search or selection strategy, so coverage and conclusions may reflect the author’s synthesis rather than exhaustive evidence; several recommendations are extrapolated from adult data or population guidelines because youth-specific data are absent.
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In the paper
“Unfortunately, there is no evidence to determine the extent to which (if at all) fluid intake may modulate the risk of heat illness in adolescent athletes.”
§ Youth Athlete Development and Nutrition > Fluid Needs of Developing Athletes
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [79] Somboonwong J, Sanguanrungsirikul S, Pitayanon C. Heat illness surveillance in schoolboys participating in physical education class in tropical climate: an analytical prospective descriptive study. BMJ Open. 2012;2(4):e000741. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2011-000741. source
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In the paper
“Furthermore, external pressures from coaches, peers, parents and social media also influence behaviour [10].”
§ Youth Athlete Development and Nutrition > The Changing Focus of Youth Athlete Development
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [10] Stoyel H, Delderfield R, Shanmuganathan-Felton V, Stoyel A, Serpell L. A qualitative exploration of sport and social pressures on elite athletes in relation to disordered eating. Front Psychol. 2021. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.633490. source
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Indeed, a recent study involving over 70 adolescent female athletes indicated a moderate relationship between athletic performance, the concentration of soluble transferrin receptors, and dietary iron intake, emphasizing the importance of iron intake for aspiring adolescent female athletes [61].”
§ Youth Athlete Development and Nutrition > Micronutrient Needs for Adolescent Athletes > Iron
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [61] Shoemaker ME, Gillen ZM, McKay BD, Bohannon NA, Gibson SM, Koehler K, et al. Sex-specific relationships among iron status biomarkers, athletic performance, maturity, and dietary intakes in pre-adolescent and adolescent athletes. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2019;16(1):42. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-019-0306-7. source
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In the paper
“In addition, longitudinal data indicate that physically active youth accrue greater increases in lean body mass than their sedentary peers [36].”
§ Youth Athlete Development and Nutrition > Macronutrient Needs of Developing Athletes > Protein
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [36] Baxter-Jones AD, Eisenmann JC, Mirwald RL, Faulkner RA, Bailey DA. The influence of physical activity on lean mass accrual during adolescence: a longitudinal analysis. J Appl Physiol (1985). 2008;105(2):734–41. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00869.2007. source
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In the paper
“This evidence, combined with high-profile advocacy from former athletes [12] and a greater appreciation of the long-term health consequences of mismanaging the diet/exercise relationship in adolescent athletes [13], has led to recent calls to fundamentally change how sports manage aspiring athletes [14].”
§ Youth Athlete Development and Nutrition > The Changing Focus of Youth Athlete Development
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [14] Ackerman KE, Stellingwerff T, Elliott-Sale KJ, Baltzell A, Cain M, Goucher K, et al. #REDS (Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport): time for a revolution in sports culture and systems to improve athlete health and performance. Br J Sports Med. 2020;54(7):369–70. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2019-101926. source
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In the citing paper
“The musculoskeletal system of young athletes is also different from that of adults with injuries occurring at the weakest points, including growth plates and apophyseal attachments [9].”
From Youth and Adolescent Athlete Musculoskeletal Health: Dietary and Nutritional Strategies to Optimise Injury Prevention and Support Recovery (2024) · cites this paper as [9]
In the citing paper
“Dietary factors, such as insufficient dietary intake to fully support growth and development, limited nutrition education (including sports-specific knowledge), low food literacy, or the presence of an eating disorder can increase the risk of injury due to inadequate nutrient intake [9].”
From Youth and Adolescent Athlete Musculoskeletal Health: Dietary and Nutritional Strategies to Optimise Injury Prevention and Support Recovery (2024) · cites this paper as [9]
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, due to increased physical activity, which places additional stress on the musculoskeletal system, adolescent athletes may also require higher nutrient intakes than less active children and adolescents [9,31].”
From Youth and Adolescent Athlete Musculoskeletal Health: Dietary and Nutritional Strategies to Optimise Injury Prevention and Support Recovery (2024) · cites this paper as [9]
In the citing paper
“as the scarcity of research on fluid balance and hydration practices among high-performance adolescent athletes has been acknowledged [8]”
In the citing paper
“Carbohydrates (CHOs) are the main source of energy for junior athletes’ muscles and the exclusive fuel for the brain and nervous system.”
From Junior athletes’ nutritional demands: a narrative review of consumption and prevalence of eating disorders (2024) · cites this paper as [56]
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Mathisen, T. F., Ackland, T. R., Burke, L. M., Constantini, N., Haudum, J., Macnaughton, L. S., Meyer, N. L., Mountjoy, M. L., Slater, G., & Sundgot‐Borgen, J. (2023) · British Journal of Sports Medicine · doi:10.1136/bjsports-2023-106812 · Cited by 155
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Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Desbrow, B.
- Affiliations
- Griffith University (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Desbrow, Ben
- ORCID
- Desbrow, Ben
- Venue
- Sports Medicine
- Published
- 2021-09
- Volume
- 51
- Issue
- S1
- Pages
- 3-12
- ISSN
- 0112-1642 (ISSN-L)
- 1179-2035
- PMC
- PMC8566439
- OpenAlex
- W3201596416
- Semantic Scholar
- e0a58ace84fc34f70fe7917304eef20bebf0b28d
- Cited by
- 159
- References
- 88
- Citations by year
- 2026: 39 · 2025: 42 · 2024: 39 · 2023: 27 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 2
- FWCI
- 2.45
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0 (tdm)
- creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0 (vor, 12 d)
- Locations
- Sports Medicine (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Griffith Research Online (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- PepsiCo
- Gran Sasso Science Institute
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Eating Disorders and Behaviors
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Obesity, Physical Activity, Diet
- Keywords
- youth athletes, youth athlete development, adolescent nutrition, sports nutrition, body composition, eating behaviour, food choice, body image, time management, peer influence, psychosocial development
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Diet, Feeding Behavior, Female, Humans, Male, Sports, Exercise, Athletes
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-11-14, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-11-14 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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Data sources
Bibliographic data: Semantic Scholar, OpenAlex, Crossref.
Contains information from the Semantic Scholar Academic Graph Datasets, made available under the ODC Attribution License (ODC-BY 1.0).
Semantic Scholar’s data is described in: Kinney, R., et al. (2023). The Semantic Scholar Open Data Platform. arXiv:2301.10140.
