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Speed-accuracy tradeoff and information processing dynamics
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“Decisions tend to be more accurate if subjects are given longer exposure to a stimulus (Green and Luce, 1973;Wickelgren, 1977;Gold and Shadlen, 2000;Mateeff et al., 2000)”
From Response of Neurons in the Lateral Intraparietal Area during a Combined Visual Discrimination Reaction Time Task (2002) · cites this paper as Wickelgren, 1977
In the citing paper
“There is often a tradeoff between speed and accuracy: performance improves with slower response times (Wickelgren, 1977).”
From Decision Making in Recurrent Neuronal Circuits (2008) · cites this paper as Wickelgren, 1977
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Cites
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“Our experimental design was based on ones used in perceptual decision making to study the speed/accuracy trade-off (Wickelgren, 1977).”
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Wickelgren, W. A. (1981) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.32.020181.000321 · Cited by 89
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“(2) to refer to θi = θ limited i + 1θ unlimited i , where θ ∈ [α,β , γ ] and 1 = 1 for unlimited time rounds, and 0 otherwise.”
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“Explorative choices, instead, engage the intraparietal sulcus (IPS) and lateral prefrontal regions, particularly frontopolar cortex (FPC) (Daw et al., 2006), with activity in the latter region predicting effective switching between exploitation and exploration (Boorman et al., 2009).”
BackgroundA Phase Transition Model for the Speed-Accuracy Trade-Off in Response Time Experiments
Dutilh, G., Wagenmakers, E., Visser, I., & van der Maas, H. L. J. (2010) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/j.1551-6709.2010.01147.x · Cited by 89
“Function A1 represents the predictions of the SAT by most RT models, including sequential sampling models (Wickelgren, 1977, Fig.”
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“quality of performance, reflected in the number of errors, was not influenced by the treatment (Pachella, 1974; Wickelgren, 1977).”
BackgroundOn the relation between the mean and the variance of a diffusion model response time distribution
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“Therefore, manipulation of boundary separation a provides a natural mechanism to model the speed-accuracy tradeoff (e.g., Wickelgren, 1977).”
BackgroundInfluence of Time Pressure in a Simple Response Task, a Choice-by-Location Task, and the Simon Task
Lubbe, R. H. J. V. D., Jaśkowskí, P., Wauschkuhn, B., & Verleger, R. (2001) · Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1027//0269-8803.15.4.241 · Cited by 83
“An important issue in reaction time (RT) research is the influence of strategy (e. g., Pachella, 1974; Wickelgren, 1977).”
BackgroundMethodEffects of Processing Time on Comprehension and Calibration in Print and Digital Mediums
Singer, L. M., Alexander, P. A., & Berkowitz, L. E. (2017) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220973.2017.1411877 · Cited by 82
“Notably, the speed-accuracy tradeoff hypothesis (Wickelgren, 1977) contends that there is a tradeoff between how fast a task is performed and the quality or accuracy that results.”
BackgroundSpecific Visual Subregions of TPJ Mediate Reorienting of Spatial Attention
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“However, differences in RT can be due to changes in decision criteria or to differences in discriminability (Reed1973; Wickelgren 1977; Carrasco and McElree 2001) and to motor behavior (Correa et al. 2010; Yashar and Lamy 2011), which confound interpretation of results. b.”
On the origins and evolution of the Attention Network Tests
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On the neural implementation of the speed-accuracy trade-off
Standage, D., Blohm, G., & Dorris, M. C. (2014) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2014.00236 · Cited by 78
“The SAT has long been the subject of behavioral experiments (Fitts, 1966; Wickelgren, 1977), but studies addressing its neural basis are a fairly recent development in the field of decision making (Bogacz et al., 2010b).”
BackgroundEquivalence of Screen Versus Print Reading Comprehension Depends on Task Complexity and Proficiency
Lenhard, W., Schroeders, U., & Lenhard, A. (2017) · Discourse Processes · doi:10.1080/0163853x.2017.1319653 · Cited by 79
“This speed–accuracy trade-off (Wickelgren, 1977) has been demonstrated in a number of domains such as intelligence (Goldhammer & Klein Entink, 2011), motor tasks (Osman et al., 2000), and reading (Dyson & Haselgrove, 2000).”
BackgroundProbabilistic Grammars as Models of Gradience in Language Processing
Crocker, M. W., & Keller, F. (2006) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199274796.003.0012 · Cited by 77
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“As can be seen in Table 4, CRT RT and CRT accuracy were significantly negatively correlated, as reported in previous research (e.g., Wickelgren, 1977; Wood & Jennings, 1976).”
Clements, G. M., Bowie, D. C., Gyurkovics, M., Low, K. A., Fabiani, M., & Gratton, G. (2021) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2021.621620 · Cited by 77
Reliability and validity of the Conners’ Continuous Performance Test
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Older age, traumatic brain injury, and cognitive slowing: Some convergent and divergent findings.
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“The interrogation paradigm has been used as an elicitation procedure in a variety of tasks (e.g., Corbett & Wickelgren, 1978; Dosher, 1976, 1979, 1981, 1982, 1984; Gao, Tortell, & McClelland 2011; Kounios, Osman, & Meyer 1987; McElree &Dosher, 1993;Meyer, Irwin, Osman, &Kounios, 1988; Ratcliff, 2006; Reed, 1973, 1976;…”
Individual Differences in Inhibitory Control: A latent Variable Analysis
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“However, given the inverse relationship between speed and accuracy in both animals and humans, known as the speed-accuracy trade-off (Bogacz, 2013; Wickelgren, 1977), performance measures based on either reaction times (e.”
BackgroundStrategies and automaticity: II. Dynamic aspects of strategy adjustment.
Strayer, D. L., & Kramer, A. F. (1994) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.20.2.342 · Cited by 75
Effects of Monetary Incentives on Task Switching
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Response Times and Decision‐Making
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“describes how responses made quickly are more likely to be incorrect (Wickelgren, 1977; 30 Schouten & Bekker, 1967; Pachella, 1974), making independent analyses of each dependent 31 variable problematic.”
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“In particular, sequential sampling models can account for the speed-accuracy trade-off that has been a long-standing source of controversy in experimental psychology (Wick-elgren, 1977).”
Meta-analysis of 35 studies examining the effect of indoor temperature on office work performance
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“This momentary desire to trade speed for accuracy — or vice versa — is described by researchers as the speed-accuracy trade-off (SAT) [43,44].”
Ducatez, S., Audet, J., & Lefebvre, L. (2014) · Animal Cognition · doi:10.1007/s10071-014-0817-1 · Cited by 70
“…in which animals cannot simultaneously achieve high levels of speed and high levels of accuracy, has been demonstrated in a wide range of organisms from humans (Wickelgren 1977) to mice (Abraham et al. 2004) to guppies (Burns and Rodd 2008), bees (Chittka et al. 2003) and ants (Franks et al. 2003).”
Effects of preliminary information in a Go versus No-go task
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“The distinction between discrete and continuous transmission is important methodologically as well as theoretically, because the interpretation of RT depends critically on whether the different processes operate sequentially or with some temporal overlap (cf., McClelland 1979; Sanders 1980; Schweickert 1980; Taylor 19…”
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Repeated measures correlationPreprint
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“1967), the function proposed by Wickelgren (1977) can be modified slightly and turned into a logistic function,”
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Mutual benefits: Combining reinforcement learning with sequential sampling models
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“The reason is that response latencies and choice behavior have long been known to trade-off (for early work, e.g., Wickelgren, 1977), and this trade-off is under voluntary control of the participant (for reviews, Bogacz et al., 2010; Heitz, 2014).”
Time pressure affects the efficiency of perceptual processing in decisions under conflict
Dambacher, M., & Hübner, R. (2014) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-014-0542-z · Cited by 70
“Accordingly, research on corresponding speed–accuracy functions (SAFs) has greatly contributed to our understanding of mental information processing and decision making (Garrett, 1922; Wickelgren, 1977).”
BackgroundProcessing resource demands of failure detection in dynamic systems.
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Proactive interference slows recognition by eliminating fast assessments of familiarity
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“... that a difference in retrieval speed will be reflected in RTs, the converse does not necessarily follow: We cannot infer a difference in retrieval speed from a difference in RT, because differences in the quality of the match between the probe and the memory representation alone can affect RT even if the underlyin…”
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“…individual, onset, slope, and asymptote of the time-accuracy function for words and pictures were calculated by means of the following equation (Wickelgren 1977; Verhaeghen and others 1998): p = c*ð1 – e ða –Dt Þ=bÞ if Dt>a 0 if 0<Dt <a : ð1Þ In this equation, p stands for the percentage of…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialDoes “Task Difficulty” Explain “Task-Induced Deactivation?”
Gilbert, S. J., Bird, G., Frith, C., & Burgess, P. W. (2012) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00125 · Cited by 70
“, respond relatively quickly and inaccurately or slowly and accurately (Fitts, 1966; Wickelgren, 1977).”
BackgroundControl without Controllers: Toward a Distributed Neuroscience of Executive Control
Eisenreich, B. R., Akaishi, R., & Hayden, B. Y. (2017) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_01139 · Cited by 79
“Speed-accuracy tradeoffs are a staple of cognitive psychology (Busemeyer & Townsend, 1993; Wickelgren, 1977; Roitman & Shadlen, 2002; Chittka et al., 2003; Gigerenzer & Goldstein, 1996; Bogacz et al., 2010) and animal psychology (Chittka, Skorupski, & Raine, 2009).”
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Learning from observing hands in static and animated versions of non-manipulative tasks
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Instruction-based response activation depends on task preparation
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“A potential concern is that performance on the inducer task could be biased by a speed–accuracy trade-off, which is a common finding when using deadline procedures (Wickelgren, 1977).”
BackgroundAssessing the speed-accuracy trade-off effect on the capacity of information processing.
Donkin, C., Little, D. R., & Houpt, J. W. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037/a0035947 · Cited by 71
Behavioral Data and Methodology Issues in Studies of Zinc Nutrition in Humans1–4
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Abstract representations of events arise from mental errors in learning and memory
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“However, the speed-accuracy tradeoff recognizes that subjects sometimes may sacrifice accuracy to enhance their speed of responding, or vice versa (Wickelgren, 1977).”
BackgroundInfluentialLanguage models, like humans, show content effects on reasoning tasks
Lampinen, A. K., Dasgupta, I., Chan, S. C. Y., Sheahan, H. R., Creswell, A., Kumaran, D., McClelland, J. L., & Hill, F. (2024) · PNAS Nexus · doi:10.1093/pnasnexus/pgae233 · Cited by 69
“However, spending longer on logical tasks can improve performance (50), and thus many studies split analyses by response time (51).”
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Comparing retrieval dynamics in recognition memory and lexical decision.
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Measuring Crowdsourcing Effort with Error-Time Curves
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“Measures such as reaction time [32] are not easy to apply to typical crowd tasks: reaction time metrics tend to use simplistic tasks (e.g., shape or color recognition), while others may be too involved for crowd work (e.g., [9]).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialWhen natural selection should optimize speed-accuracy trade-offs
Pirrone, A., Stafford, T., & Marshall, J. A. R. (2014) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2014.00073 · Cited by 69
“This obvious problem is defined as the speedaccuracy trade-off and is a distinctive feature of many types of decision making (Wickelgren, 1977).”
BackgroundOvercoming indecision by changing the decision boundary.
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Structure and process in semantic memory: New evidence based on speed-accuracy decomposition.
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Do central nonlinearities exist?
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Prosodic Influence on Syntactic Judgements
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Developmental changes in processing speed: Influence of speed-accuracy regulation.
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“, [2]).”
Accounting for speed–accuracy tradeoff in perceptual learning
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Strategic control in word reading: Evidence from speeded responding in the tempo-naming task.
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Semantic Memory Retrieval: Analysis by Speed Accuracy Tradeoff Functions
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Self-citationSurgical Telementoring Without Encumbrance
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Quantifying the benefits of using decision models with response time and accuracy data
Stafford, T., Pirrone, A., Croucher, M., & Krystalli, A. (2020) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-020-01372-w · Cited by 67
“…such approaches may be better than focusing on a single behavioral variable, the assumption of linearity is at odds with work which has explicitly characterized the SATO (Fitts, 1966; Heitz, 2014; Wickelgren, 1977) and has shown a distinctly curvilinear relation between response time and accuracy.”
BackgroundResultDuncker, L., & Sahani, M. (2021) · Current Opinion in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.conb.2021.10.014 · Cited by 63
“This is the ubiquitous phenomenon of speedaccuracy tradeoff [2].”
BackgroundJian, Y. (2022) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/s11145-021-10246-2 · Cited by 77
“This result corresponds to 1 3 Reading in print versus digital media uses different cognitive… the effect of the speed accuracy trade-off (Wickelgren, 1977) that has been demonstrated in a number of domains, including reading tasks (Dyson & Haselgrove, 2000).”
BackgroundModeling aging effects on two-choice tasks: Response signal and response time data.
Ratcliff, R. (2008) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/a0013930 · Cited by 64
“In the response signal procedure (see Corbett & Wickelgren, 1978; Dosher, 1976, 1979, 1981, 1982, 1984; McElree & Dosher, 1993; Ratcliff, 1978, 1980, 1981; Reed, 1973, 1976; Schouten & Bekker, 1967; Wickelgren, 1977; Wickelgren & Corbett, 1977), each test stimulus is followed by a signal to respond, and participants a…”
BackgroundMethodOscillatory correlates of controlled speed‐accuracy tradeoff in a response‐conflict task
Pastötter, B., Berchtold, F., & Bäuml, K. T. (2011) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.21322 · Cited by 64
“Preparing each shot, with cold fingers and a pounding heart, athletes have to balance between the competing demands of speed and accuracy, a balance that is referred to as the speed-accuracy tradeoff (SAT) in the scientific literature [Schouten and Bekker, 1967; Wickelgren, 1977].”
BackgroundUnderstanding perceptual judgment in autism spectrum disorder using the drift diffusion model.
Pirrone, A., Dickinson, A. H., Gomez, R., Stafford, T., & Milne, E. (2016) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000320 · Cited by 67
“greater accuracy than the other, or where one group shows slower performance than the other may be due to different speed/accuracy trade-offs (Heitz, 2014; Pachella, 1974; Palmer, Huk, & Shadlen, 2005; Stone, 2014; Wickelgren, 1977).”
BackgroundInfluentialHormonal basis of sex differences in anesthetic sensitivity
Wasilczuk, A. Z., Rinehart, C., Aggarwal, A., Stone, M. E., Mashour, G. A., Avidan, M. S., Kelz, M. B., Proekt, A., ReCCognition Study Group, Basner, M., et al. (2024) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2312913120 · Cited by 72
“In order to consider a speed - accuracy tradeoff, both PVT speed and accuracy were analyzed separately (118).”
MethodSpeed of reasoning and its relation to reasoning ability
Goldhammer, F., & Entink, R. H. K. (2011) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2011.02.001 · Cited by 61
A Dual‐Process Diffusion Model
Alós‐Ferrer, C. (2016) · Journal of Behavioral Decision Making · doi:10.1002/bdm.1960 · Cited by 58
Applying novel technologies and methods to inform the ontology of self-regulation
Eisenberg, I. W., Bissett, P. G., Canning, J. R., Dallery, J., Enkavi, A. Z., Whitfield-Gabrieli, S., Gonzalez, O., Green, A. I., Greene, M. A., Kiernan, M., et al. (2018) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2017.09.014 · Cited by 61
Hedge, C., Powell, G., Bompas, A., Vivian-Griffiths, S., & Sumner, P. (2018) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000164 · Cited by 67
On the Utility of Integrated Speed-Accuracy Measures when Speed-Accuracy Trade-off is Present
Vandierendonck, A. (2021) · Journal of Cognition · doi:10.5334/joc.154 · Cited by 71
“In other words, when SAT is present, variations in speed and accuracy are negatively correlated (for reviews on SAT, see Heitz, 2014; Wickelgren, 1977).”
BackgroundTemporal preparation improves temporal resolution: Evidence from constant foreperiods
Bausenhart, K. M., Rolke, B., & Ulrich, R. (2008) · Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/pp.70.8.1504 · Cited by 62
“This temporally delayed response signal was introduced to discourage participants from speeded responding and, thus, to further minimize possible influences of motor processing on TOJ performance (e.g., by speed–accuracy trade-offs; Wickelgren, 1977 ).”
BackgroundYamaguchi, M., Crump, M. J. C., & Logan, G. D. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037/a0030512 · Cited by 66
Salinas, E., Scerra, V. E., Hauser, C. K., Costello, M. G., & Stanford, T. R. (2014) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2014.00085 · Cited by 61
“REVIEW ARTICLE published: 23 April 2014 doi: 10.3389/fnins.2014.00085 Decoupling speed and accuracy in an urgent decision-making task reveals multiple contributions to their trade-off Emilio Salinas*, Veronica E. Scerra , Christopher K. Hauser , M. Gabriela Costello and Terrence R. Stanford Department of Neurobiology…”
BackgroundInfluentialEthanol, errors, and the speed–accuracy trade-off
Tiplady, B., Drummond, G. B., Cameron, E., Gray, E. H., Hendry, J., Sinclair, W. A., & WRIGHT, P. D. (2001) · Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0091-3057(01)00551-2 · Cited by 60
Effects of Processing Difficulty on Judgements of Acceptability
Fanselow, G., & FRISCH, S. (2006) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199274796.003.0015 · Cited by 59
Shortal, B. P., Hickman, L. B., Mak-McCully, R. A., Wang, W., Brennan, C. M., Ung, H., Litt, B., Tarnal, V., Janke, E., Picton, P., et al. (2019) · British Journal of Anaesthesia · doi:10.1016/j.bja.2019.03.046 · Cited by 61
Jayne, B. C., Lehmkuhl, A. M., & Riley, M. A. (2014) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2013.12.002 · Cited by 58
Tao, M., Yang, D., & Liu, W. (2019) · Energy and Buildings · doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2019.05.044 · Cited by 58
Modeling fan effects on the time course of associative recognition
Schneider, D. W., & Anderson, J. R. (2011) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cogpsych.2011.11.001 · Cited by 59
“It is well known that people can trade speed for accuracy in task performance, slowing down to make fewer errors and speeding up at the risk of making more errors (Pachella, 1974; Wickelgren, 1977).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialChen, Y., Byrne, P., & Crawford, J. D. (2010) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.10.031 · Cited by 61
The impact of MRI scanner environment on perceptual decision-making
van Maanen, L., Forstmann, B. U., Keuken, M. C., Wagenmakers, E., & Heathcote, A. (2015) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-015-0563-6 · Cited by 63
“This parameter influences the speed–accuracy trade-off behavior of the model, decreasing error rates at the expense of RT (Bogacz et al., 2010; Wickelgren, 1977).”
BackgroundInfluentialKeeping track of ‘alternative facts’: The neural correlates of processing misinformation corrections
Gordon, A., Susanne Quadflieg, A., Brooks, J. C. W., Ecker, U. K. H., & Lewandowsky, S. (2019) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.03.014 · Cited by 59
“Additionally, a single dependent measure for the image categorization task combining participants' accuracy rates and reaction times was created to account for a potential speed-accuracy trade-off in participants' replies (Garrett, 1922; Schouten and Bekker, 1967; Wickelgren, 1977).”
VSearch: Macintosh software for experiments in visual search
Enns, J. T., Ochs, E. P., & Rensink, R. A. (1990) · Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers · doi:10.3758/bf03203130 · Cited by 57
Semantic and Lexical Decisions
SHOBEN, E. J. (1982) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-566760-9.50015-4 · Cited by 57
Hedge, C., Vivian-Griffiths, S., Powell, G., Bompas, A., & Sumner, P. (2019) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2019.102797 · Cited by 60
Metadata
- Authors
- Wickelgren, W. A.
- Affiliations
- University of Oregon (US)
- Corresponding author
- Wickelgren, Wayne A.
- Venue
- Acta Psychologica
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 1977-02
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 67-85
- ISSN
- 0001-6918 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1973624057
- Cited by
- 1,304
- References
- 36
- Citations by year
- 2026: 31 · 2025: 61 · 2024: 42 · 2023: 66 · 2022: 53 · 2021: 64 · 2020: 77 · 2019: 50 · 2018: 61 · 2017: 61 · 2016: 62 · 2015: 46 · 2014: 60 · 2013: 43 · 2012: 43
- FWCI
- 17.03
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Acta Psychologica (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Keywords
- speed-accuracy trade-off, reaction time, response deadlines, payoffs, perceptual processing, recognition memory
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