Speed-accuracy tradeoff and information processing dynamics

“…outcome of male–male interactions (Dadour and Bailey 1985; Latimer and Schatral 1986) and for preferences exhibited by females in a two-choice situation (Shuvalov and Popov 1973; Gwynne 1982; Doherty 1985; Latimer and Sippel 1987; Bailey and Yeoh 1988; Weber and Thorson 1988; Bailey et al. 1990).”

“…outside of cartography have shown that time pressure can have a negative effect on the quality of the decision-making such as, response accuracy (Maule and Edland 1997; Wickelgren 1977), and response con fi dence in decisions made without maps (Maule 1998; Maule and Andrade 1997; Smith et al. 1982).”

“Accuracy and response time, however, trade against each other (Fitts 1966; Wickelgren 1977) and both must be considered in a welldefined and standard task difficulty measure.”

“The well-known speed-accuracy tradeoff, for example, describes how one can make faster decisions at the expense of accuracy, and vice versa (Reed, 1973; Pachella, 1974; Wickelgren, 1977).”

“These behavioral studies are difficult to interpret because they used changes in response time (RT) to index attention, which can reflect changes in speed of processing, discriminability or decision criteria (Reed 1973; Wickelgren 1977).”

“One important aspect of making a decision is the speed–accuracy tradeoff (SAT; Wickelgren, 1977): making a decision quickly comes at the expense of being accurate, and vice versa.”

“The focus on response speed typically comes at the cost of making more errors, which are evenly distributed across the RT distribution (Heitz, 2014; Schouten & Bekker, 1967; Van Maanen et al., 2011; Wickelgren, 1977).”

“…Department of Psychology, University of Bremen, Hochschulring 18, D-28359 Bremen, Germany 1 3 where RT is mean RT, δ is the x-offset, γ the steepness of the curve, and λ the PC asymptote (see Wickelgren, 1977; see also Usher & McClelland, 2001, and for a broader discussion, see Luce, 1986).”

“It is unlikely that many decisions were made from actually perceiving targets given the well-established literature on speed accuracy tradeoffs (Schouten & Bekker, 1967; Wickelgren, 1977) and our finding that decisions made in the 96% condition were more accurate and faster.”

“However, this interpretation assumes that the n-back task is subject to a speed-accuracy trade-off (Wickelgren, 1977), and it is unclear whether using a slower and more cautious response style improves accuracy on this task.”

“The reason for including the velocity in the equation is that human movements become more variable when the velocity increases [79,80].”

“FAST BOUNDARY MODULATION: SPEED–ACCURACY TRADEOFF The change in decision boundary provides a straightforward account of the speed–accuracy tradeoff (SAT) effect that is often observed in decision-making tasks (Schouten and Bekker, 1967; Wickelgren, 1977; Luce, 1986; Franks et al., 2003; Chittka et al., 2009).”

“An SATF is generally characterized by its slope, intercept, and asymptote (Dosher, 1979; McElree, 2001; Wickelgren, 1977) or by its slope and intercept, if one considers only the region before the function asymptotes (Lappin & Disch, 1972a, 1972b, 1973).”

“Over the last few decades, much research has been carried out on problems focusing exclusively on success or fail in trials during the performance of a task, emphasizing the importance of RT variables and their relationship to underlying cognitive processes (Sternberg, 1966; Wickelgren, 1977; McVay and Kane, 2012; Rat…”

“…to be in tension (Forstmann et al., 2008; Garret, 1922; Hick, 1952; Ollman, 1966; Pachella, 1974; Ratcliff & Rouder, 1998; Schouten & Bekker, 1967; Wickelgren, 1977; Woodworth, 1899), with the general assumption being that slower decisions are more accurate than faster decisions (Donkin et al.,…”

“lever responses 15 Tomie et al., (1973) Pigeons Wavelength Type of training 22 5* 3.”

“There is considerable evidence that people can trade speed for accuracy strategically (e.g., Wickelgren, 1977), and there is evidence from interruptions research in particular that linking errors to a high time cost improves accuracy (Brumby et al., 2013).”

“Unfortunately, it has often been shown that many cognitive measures are not as process pure as often assumed (see Draheim et al., 2019; Hedge et al., 2018, 2021; Miller & Ulrich, 2013; Wickelgren, 1977).”

“For more in depth discussion, see Wickelgren (1977), Dosher (1979), Meyer et al. (1988), inter alia.”

“This has the consequence of making within-subject effects in accuracy difficult to detect, while producing large RT effects, as seen in Scenario C (see also Ratcliff et al., 2000; Wickelgren, 1977).”

“Lastly, the goal of responding accurately and correctly are negatively interdependent (speed-accuracy tradeoff; e.g., Wickelgren, 1977), and therefore should make coasting possible and functional.”

“Moreover, this model accounts well for the dependency of the RT distribution on the values (or stimulus strength) of the choice options (Ratcliff & Rouder, 1998; Ratcliff & McKoon, 2008), and for the speed-accuracy tradeoff — the often-observed phenomenon that decision makers are able to improve their choice accuracy…”

“Regarding general performance consequences in controlled laboratory experiments, there is usually a speed–accuracy tradeoff in visual search tasks (e.g., Drury 1994; Wickelgren 1977) which has also been shown in a luggage screening task (e.g., McCarley 2009).”

“The effects of time pressure on the speed and accuracy of reactions typically follow the aptly named Speed-Accuracy Tradeoff (SAT) function (Wickelgren, 1977): prioritizing the speed of reactions yields faster responses at the cost of making more errors, whereas prioritizing response accuracy…”

“To combine these two scores to account for the speed-accuracy tradeoff (Wickelgren, 1977), the effect sizes of the rate and error scores of the groups were calculated based on the mean and standard deviation of the control group.”

“…representations can engender differences in response time, even when the underlying speed of information accrual is identical (e.g., Dosher, 1976, 1981; McElree & Dosher, 1989; Murdock, 1971; Ratcliff, 1978; Wickelgren, 1977; Wickelgren et al., 1980; for a review and discussion, see McElree, 2006).”

“That is, strategic responding to high rewards should lead to a speed accuracy trade-off–a sacrifice of accuracy for greater speed [41,42].”

“This approach fails to make use of all of the available data and means that results could be contaminated by age-related differences in speed-accuracy tradeoffs (Ho et al. 2012; Wickelgren 1977).”

“The basic notion of the speed–accuracy trade-off (SAT) is an intuitively appealing one: An individual’s slow, deliberative decisions should, all else equal, be more accurate than rushed decisions (Wickelgren, 1977; see also Figure 1).”

“Consequently, independent analyses of response times and accuracy are often difficult to interpret and may even lead to inaccurate conclusions (Wickelgren, 1977).”

“…measurement of optimal behavior (i.e. maximization of reward per unit time) (Woodworth, 1899, Henmon, 1911, Garrett, 1922, Pew, 1969, Pachella, 1974, Wickelgren, 1977, Ruthruff, 1996, Ratcliff and Rouder, 1998, Gold and Shadlen, 2002, Bogacz et al., 2006; Bogacz et al., 2010; Heitz and Schall,…”

“Speed–accuracy tradeoffs describe a well-known phenomenon in which spending more time on a task tends to increase performance accuracy (e.g., Wickelgren, 1977), but often only up to a certain point, after which additional time spent results in diminishing additional gains in accuracy (Evans et al.,…”

“While decades of research have demonstrated a speed–accuracy tradeoff in decision- making tasks (e.g., Fitts, 1966; Wickelgren, 1977), this is the first demonstration of this finding in the context of lethal force performance to the best of our knowledge.”

“The notion that people can trade response time for accuracy in any task has been well-documented (Fitts, 1966; Garret, 1922; Hick, 1952; Ollman, 1966; Pachella & Pew, 1968; Pew, 1969; Schouten & Bekker, 1967; Wickelgren, 1977; Woodworth, 1899).”

“In our view, the CUD patients decreased the response speed in order to prevent inhibition errors (i.e. a speed–accuracy tradeoff; Wickelgren, 1977).”

“Sensory perception is a trade-off between speed and accuracy (see, e.g. Fitts, 1966;Wickelgren, 1977).”

“, 2006; Brown & Heathcote, 2008; Gold & Shadlen, 2001; Ratcliff & McKoon, 2008; Teodorescu & Usher, 2013; Usher & McClelland, 2001; Vickers, 1970) provide a parsimonious account for the shape of choice-RT distributions of correct and incorrect responses as a function of stimulus difficulty, as well as for the wellknow…”

“To quantify these dynamics, we fit the conditional accuracy data with an asymptotic function (Fig. 2A,C, solid curves; Wickelgren, 1977; McElree and Dosher, 1989; Heitz, 2014), and estimated three key metrics, in each Research Article: New Research 8 of 14”

“The response signal paradigm is a popular method for controlling SATs (Dosher, 1979; Reed, 1976; Wickelgren, 1977 ).”

“The DalCAB emphasizes reaction time and accuracy measures that have been consistently related to attentional functions and can be sensitively and robustly measured (e.g., Sternberg, 1966; Wicklegren, 1977; see below).”

“It is possible that novices were prioritizing speed over accuracy and that slowing them down might dilute the expert accuracy advantage we observed for fingerprints [42].”

“The close relationship between speed and accuracy has been known for decades, and is predicted by the drift-diffusion model, a model commonly used to account for such data (Barack & Gold, 2016; Norman & Wickelgren, 1969; Palmer et al., 2005; Uchida et al., 2006; Watson, 1979; Wickelgren, 1977).”

“speed-accuracy tradeoff (SAT) is a salient feature of decision making [27–30] and is commonly described as the result of adjusting a decision threshold in a drift diffusion model (DDM)”

“There is robust evidence that additional factors like how cautiously a participant responds (i.e., their speed/accuracy settings) affect both RTs and accuracy (e.g., Wickelgren, 1977; Ratcliff et al., 2004).”

“…& Alimi, 1997) and perception (Grosjean et al., 2007) to memory (Hacker, 1980) and mental imagery (Cerritelli et al., 2000), as well as across species from insects (e.g., Ings & Chittka, 2008) and rodents (e.g., Rinberg et al., 2006) to monkeys (Heitz & Schall, 2012) and humans (Wickelgren, 1977).”

“…and 1 Because speed and accuracy are considered to have a non-linear relationship, study participants are often instructed to keep a constant high level of accuracy, and to respond as quickly as possible without sacrificing accuracy, see Wickelgren (1977). classification”; Humphreys, 1962, p. 482).”

“, allor-none) processes that are differentially distributed across the time course of the decision (Kello, Plaut, & MacWhinney, 2000; Wickelgren, 1977).”

“…a second formula can be used: P(Hit) {1 exp[ (x NSTh)/STh]} * Pdh, (2) where P(Hit) is the y-value that is generated by graphing the function that uses the values of the NSTh, STh, and Pdh (see Figure 1), and this formula is similar to other speed–accuracy curve equations (i.e., Wickelgren, 1977).”

“However, a lower threshold also increases the probability that the participant makes errors, resulting in the classical speed-accuracy trade-off (Bogacz et al. 2010; Heitz 2014; Schouten and Bekker 1967; Wickelgren 1977).”

“For example, Cassey et al. (2014) analyzed some RT distributions from monkeys Q and S and suggested that the monkeys were timing responses relative to the enforced deadline (Heitz 2014; Wickelgren 1977).”

“The success rate has been shown to vary nonlinearly depending on whether users try to shorten the operation time or aim carefully [52, 54, 55].”

“It should be noted that speed and accuracy can be traded one for the other on many cognitive tasks (Salthouse and Hedden 2002; Wickelgren 1977 ), and that simply considering either speed or accuracy by itself does not establish respondents’ sensitivity to the stimuli.”

“Wickelgren 1977 ). We contrasted pro and antisaccade performance under instructions that emphasised either speed or accuracy in responding, and also adopted a “delay” instruction as used by Mosimann et al. (2004).”