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Speed-accuracy tradeoff and information processing dynamics
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“Decisions tend to be more accurate if subjects are given longer exposure to a stimulus (Green and Luce, 1973;Wickelgren, 1977;Gold and Shadlen, 2000;Mateeff et al., 2000)”
From Response of Neurons in the Lateral Intraparietal Area during a Combined Visual Discrimination Reaction Time Task (2002) · cites this paper as Wickelgren, 1977
In the citing paper
“There is often a tradeoff between speed and accuracy: performance improves with slower response times (Wickelgren, 1977).”
From Decision Making in Recurrent Neuronal Circuits (2008) · cites this paper as Wickelgren, 1977
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Kılıç, A., & Öztekin, I. (2014) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2014.06.009 · Cited by 10
“…fitting data at the group and individual level as an exponential approach to a limit (Dosher, 1981; McElree & Dosher, 1993; Nobel & Shiffrin, 2001; Wickelgren, 1977; Öztekin & McElree, 2007, 2010; Öztekin et al., 2012): d0ðtÞ ¼ kð1 e bðt dÞÞ; t < d; else 0 ð1Þ where d0(t) is the predicted d0 at…”
BackgroundMethodVerbal predictions of unexpected stimuli and choice reaction time
Hacker, M. J., & Hinrichs, J. V. (1979) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03198267 · Cited by 7
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“One of the two classic problems in assessment is the trade-off between speed and accuracy (Wickelgren, 1977).”
BackgroundCullen, R. H., & Agnew, M. J. (2016) · IIE Transactions on Occupational Ergonomics and Human Factors · doi:10.1080/21577323.2016.1165315 · Cited by 7
“The root of this problem lies in the speed–accuracy tradeoff and the fact that the two measures are not independent (Wickelgren, 1977).”
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Pfordresher, P. Q., Palmėr, C., & Jungers, M. K. (2007) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1207/s15516709cog3101_3 · Cited by 8
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Chwiesko, C., Janecek, J. T., Doering, S., Hollearn, M. K., McMillan, L. C., Vandekerckhove, J., Lee, M. D., Ratcliff, R., & Yassa, M. A. (2023) · Learning & Memory · doi:10.1101/lm.053838.123 · Cited by 9
“Thisistermedresponsecautionandisakeyconsiderationinspeed-eddecision-makingduetothespeed – accuracy trade-off — the phe-nomenoninwhichthemoretimeadecision-makertakestomakeadecision,themorelikelyitistobeaccurate,andviceversa (Wickelgren1977;Bogaczetal.2010).”
Gazit, T., Tager-Shafrir, T., Zhong, H.-X., Hung, P. C. K., & Cheung, V. (2025) · Ergonomics · doi:10.1080/00140139.2025.2483451 · Cited by 9
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“Similarly, Wickelgren (1977) demonstrated that as speed is reduced, accuracy increases.”
Constant, M., Mandal, A., Asanowicz, D., Panek, B., Kotlewska, I., Yamaguchi, M., Gillmeister, H., Kerzel, D., Luque, D., Molinero, S., et al. (2025) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2025.05.014 · Cited by 6
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“Since it is known that speed and accuracy can trade off in many cognitive and perceptual tasks (Wickelgren, 1977) and the time to perceive depth (response latency) has been shown to reduce substantially only after a few blocks of repeated exposure to the stimuli (O’Toole and Kersten, 1992), in our…”
BackgroundResponse to Difficulty Drives Variation in IQ Test Performance
Cheyette, S., & Piantadosi, S. T. (2024) · Open Mind · doi:10.1162/opmi_a_00127 · Cited by 7
“Such tradeoffs are even attested in other species (Bogacz et al., 2010; Chittka et al., 2009; Goldhammer, 2015; Heitz, 2014; Heitz & Schall, 2012; Luce, 1986; Wickelgren, 1977).”
BackgroundCoreference and Focus in Reading Times
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Gaze-informed modeling of preference learning and prediction.
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Sound localization latency in normal hearing and simulated unilateral hearing loss
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“Hence, the clinical value of SLL remains to 17 be determined, but the importance of a combination of latency and accuracy measures has 18 been pointed out previously (Fitts, 1966; Wickelgren, 1977).”
Human Speed-Accuracy Tradeoffs in Search
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Bio-Inspired Information Pathways
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Using the Speed-Accuracy Operating Characteristic to Visualize Performance with Pointing Devices
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“The SAOC is easy for clinicians, clients and third-party payers to interpret, and provides an efficient means of summarizing and documenting performance but does not replace clinical judgement or eliminate the need for clinician-client interaction.”
BackgroundMethodProgramming of Time-to-Peak Force for Brief Isometric Force Pulses: Effects on Reaction Time
Schröter, H. (2005) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470210500198643 · Cited by 6
“Overall, the analysis of error rate suggests that the RT effects observed were not influenced by a speed–accuracy tradeoff (Osman et al., 2000; Wickelgren, 1977).”
Why Forwarded E-Mail Threads are Hard to Read: The E-Mail Format as an Antecedent of E-Mail Overload
Sobotta, N. (2016) · Communications of the Association for Information Systems · doi:10.17705/1cais.03902 · Cited by 6
Genes and Human Decision-Making
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“Nonetheless, the presence of a possible speedaccuracy trade-off effect was still assessed by averaging both accuracy and reaction time scores across conditions for each participant and then correlating them (Wickelgren, 1977).”
MethodFaiola, E., Meyhöfer, I., Steffens, M., Kasparbauer, A., Kumari, V., & Ettinger, U. (2018) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2018.10.033 · Cited by 7
“This is relevant in two different regards: first, it clarifies that participants indeed performed worse after sleep deprivation and did not simply shift in how they weighted speed and accuracy during the task (see Wickelgren, 1977).”
BackgroundPauli, B. D., & Lindström, K. (2020) · Journal of Ethology · doi:10.1007/s10164-020-00673-z · Cited by 6
“Thus, time constraints in mate choice, as in many animal decision making situations, can result in a speed-accuracy trade-off (Wickelgren 1977; Chittka et al.”
BackgroundThe effect of mindfulness and stereotype threat in mental rotation: a pupillometry study
Bauer, R., Jost, L., & Jansen, P. (2021) · Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/20445911.2021.1967366 · Cited by 6
“Here, accuracy undergoes smaller changes than reaction time and is, therefore, less influenced by different variables (see e.g. Hertzog et al., 1993; Wickelgren, 1977).”
BackgroundLaomettachit, T., Termsaithong, T., Sae-Tang, A., & Duangphakdee, O. (2016) · Journal of Insect Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10905-016-9581-1 · Cited by 5
No evidence for automatic response activation with target onset in the avatar-compatibility task
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“However, the effect is reversed in percentage errors with worse performance in the compatible conditions indicating a speed-accuracy tradeoff (Wickelgren, 1977).”
BackgroundResultItem recognition with automatized performance
Bundesen, C. (1982) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.1982.tb00431.x · Cited by 6
A new approach to the study of subitizing as distinct enumeration processing
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Instructed speed and accuracy affect binding
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“We excluded RTs of more than 1.5 interquartile ranges above the third quartile of the probe Response B RT distribution of the individual participant (Tukey, 1977) and RTs shorter than 200 ms from the RT analysis.”
MethodInfluentialNeurocognitive factors of new drone Pilots: Identifying candidates with expert potential
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Autistic traits relate to speed/accuracy trade-off but not statistical learning and updating
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“To maximize performance, a trade-off between speed and accuracy is a typical characteristic of decision-making and learning tasks 49,50 .”
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“Basic procedures to capture or address SAT have included instructions, payoffs, deadlines, bands, response signals (with blocked and mixed designs), and partitioning of reaction time (Wickelgren, 1977).”
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Meier, T. B., Naing, L., Thomas, L. E., Nair, V. A., Hillis, A. E., & Prabhakaran, V. (2011) · Behavioural Neurology · doi:10.1155/2011/652073 · Cited by 5
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“1; see also Pachella, 1974; Wickelgren, 1977) that information about a continuously presented target accumulates monotically to some asymptote, then so long as the target is not brief and masked, any reduction in response time generated by a warning signal would be accompanied by an increase in…”
The effects of reward and frustration on the task performance of autistic children and adolescents
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“This phenomenon has been extensively examined in neuroscience to identify the human balance between speed and accuracy, commonly called the speed-accuracy trade-off [3].”
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Information-Theoretic Analysis of the Speed-Accuracy Tradeoff with Feedback
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“, Fitts’ tapping task [4] where the participant aims at a target of a given width at a given distance: 1) all movements start at the same position: initial positional variance is null; 2) in the early stages of the movement, positional variance increases [9], [11]; 3) if time permits, the participant eventually reache…”
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“(2012) operationally defined motor skill learning as a change in the speed-accuracy tradeoff function, suggesting that skill can be defined by this relationship, an idea supported by much earlier literature (Wickelgren 1977).”
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“Measuring these functions is crucial because estimates of process dynamics based on free response time alone will confound item accessibility and strength (Wickelgren, 1977).”
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“A crucial phenomenon used in the study of time pressure is the speed-accuracy tradeoff (SAT) [63–66].”
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RETRACTED ARTICLE: Local and global effects of motivation on cognitive control
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“…that participants can change their performance criteria on the basis of speed-stress versus accuracy-stress task instructions (Bogacz, Wagenmakers, Forstmann, & Nieuwenhuis, 2010; Forstmann et al., 2008; Meyer et al., 1990; Strayer & Kramer, 1994; van Veen, Krug, & Carter, 2008;Wickelgren, 1977).”
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“Accordingly, the reaction time T ik for choice process c ik is acquired by the following equation On the other hand, the basic fact that one can trade-off accuracy for speed over some range of response times has been known for a very long time [16].”
BackgroundTrail Making Test error analysis in classic motor neuron disease
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“The examination of both TMT time-to-completion and error pattern further allows us to comment on the classic speed-accuracy trade-off, which suggests that if someone tries to respond quickly, errors increase but if someone tries for an error-free performance, reaction time increases [34].”
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On the accuracy of speed-accuracy tradeoff
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“…from psychology and educational testing provides further support for the utility of information on timing and suggests a tradeoff between timing and accuracy or score; those with the fastest times may be guessing or otherwise sacrificing accuracy for speed (Kyllonen & Zu, 2016; Wickelgren, 1977).”
The Curve of Learning With and Without Instructions
van Maanen, L., Zhang, Y., Schryver, M. D., & Liefooghe, B. (2024) · Journal of Cognition · doi:10.5334/joc.373 · Cited by 8
The influence of tDCS on the speed-accuracy tradeoff and metacognitive decision making
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“The second initial assessment was a two-choice reaction time (RT) task (34, 35) which was administered to confirm participants could generate a typical choice RT response and for use as referent data for analysis of the Ericksen-Flanker task.”
MethodChau, E., Murray, C. A., & Shams, L. B. (2021) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.12273 · Cited by 4
“Wickelgren WA. 1977.”
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“These inconclusive findings might reflect potential speed-accuracy trade-offs (Heitz, 2014; Wickelgren, 1977), which can vary within and between participants (Gueugneau et al.”
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“This is most clearly exemplified in classic speed–accuracy trade-offs, well-known phenomena where participants can sacrifice accuracy for increased speed (and vice versa, e.g., Heitz, 2014; Henmon, 1911; Wickelgren, 1977; Woodworth, 1899).”
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Zahner, W. C., Dai, T., Cromley, J. G., Wills, T. W., Booth, J. L., Shipley, T. F., & Stepnowski, W. (2017) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2017.01.007 · Cited by 5
“That there is a tradeoff of speed and accuracy in problem solving is well documented (Wickelgren, 1977).”
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Incorporating Functional Response Time Effects into a Signal Detection Theory Model
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“Once response time is past a certain criterion, speed trades off with accuracy such that slower responses tend to be more accurate, up to a certain point (Wickelgren, 1977).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Wickelgren, W. A.
- Affiliations
- University of Oregon (US)
- Corresponding author
- Wickelgren, Wayne A.
- Venue
- Acta Psychologica
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 1977-02
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 67-85
- ISSN
- 0001-6918 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1973624057
- Cited by
- 1,304
- References
- 36
- Citations by year
- 2026: 31 · 2025: 61 · 2024: 42 · 2023: 66 · 2022: 53 · 2021: 64 · 2020: 77 · 2019: 50 · 2018: 61 · 2017: 61 · 2016: 62 · 2015: 46 · 2014: 60 · 2013: 43 · 2012: 43
- FWCI
- 17.03
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Acta Psychologica (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Keywords
- speed-accuracy trade-off, reaction time, response deadlines, payoffs, perceptual processing, recognition memory
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