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Evolution of Sedimentary Rocks
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This chapter argues that recycling and evolution are complementary rather than opposing explanations for the secular decline of sedimentary mass with age, and that the lithologic and geochemical record of sediments is controlled chiefly by the preservation probabilities of tectonic settings. It synthesizes global mass–age inventories, clastic geochemistry, and seawater isotope records to reconstruct the evolution of the exogenic system.
Key findings
- The present-day global sedimentary mass is ~2.7×10²⁴ g, of which ~72.6% lies on continents (orogenic belts 51.9%, platforms 20.7%), 12.9% in passive-margin basins, 5.5% in active-margin basins, and ~8.3% on the ocean floor; mass declines exponentially with age.
- Oceanic crust has a half-life (t₅₀) of ~60 My, corresponding to generation/destruction of ~3.5 km² (~20 km³) per year and a maximum life span under 200 My; continental crust totals 7.177×10⁹ km³, with ~25% formed 4.0–2.6 Gy ago, ~35% between 2.6 and 1.7 Gy, and ~40% subsequently, giving a long-term generation rate of ~1.7±0.1 km³ yr⁻¹.
- The sedimentary cycle is estimated to be ~90±5% cannibalistic, reaching near steady state around the Archean/Proterozoic transition; carbonates constitute ~30% of the Phanerozoic sedimentary mass, with a post-Permian half-life of ~86 My versus 130 My for the total sedimentary mass (carbonate recycling ~1.5× faster).
- Seawater ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr (present 0.7092) derives ~3/4 from riverine and ~1/4 from mantle flux, declining from Cambrian to Jurassic then rising steeply; the Precambrian lower envelope straddles mantle values until the Archean/Proterozoic transition, favoring episodic continental growth over early complete crustal generation.
Methods
- Narrative synthesis/review chapter (Treatise on Geochemistry, 2nd ed.), relying heavily on Veizer (1988a), Veizer (2003), and Morse and Mackenzie (1990)/Mackenzie and Morse (1992); no new primary data are generated.
- Applies population-dynamics formalism (survival curves, half-life t₅₀, mean age, oblivion age t_max, recycling constant b) to crustal, tectonic-realm, and sedimentary populations, and compiles existing global databases (e.g., n=5059 Precambrian carbonate samples; 4055 Phanerozoic ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr samples; ~4500 samples for δ¹³C and δ¹⁸O; 9557 for δ¹⁸O).
- Compares compiled mass–age distributions, clastic geochemistry (K₂O/Na₂O, Th/Sc, REE, Sm–Nd and Lu–Hf model ages), and seawater isotope curves (Sr, Os, S, C, O, plus B and Ca) against tectonic and continental-growth scenarios.
Limitations
- The authors repeatedly state that databases are of poor or uneven reliability: "only major features of the record can be quantitatively interpreted," preservation-probability systematics are "nothing more than a conceptual framework," and Precambrian Sr and δ³⁴S records suffer poor stratigraphic and geochronological resolution.
- Several key datasets are explicitly contested in the text: the Given and Wilkinson (1987) dolomite mass–age data (challenged by Holland and Zimmerman, 2000, and Zenger, 1989), the statistical significance of ooid trends (Bates and Brand, 1990), and the causative link between seafloor-spreading rates and seawater chemistry (Rowley, 2002).
- The text itself notes unresolved problems: the physical mechanism coupling δ³⁴S and δ¹³C is "not clarified," the meaning of higher-order isotope oscillations "is not yet understood," and clumped-isotope thermometry yields elevated temperatures (up to 70 °C) that conflict with the well-preserved sample set—an inconsistency the authors flag as unresolved.
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5 Valid · 6 Not valid · 47 Not checked · 81 Own results and interpretations
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In the paper
“it is composed of 76 wt% terrigenous material, 7% calcium carbonate, 10% opal, and 7% mineral bound water (Plank and Langmuir, 1998).”
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Plank and Langmuir, 1998 source
The Abstract gives the same four percentages for GLOSS, the paper’s estimate of global subducting sediment composition. The estimate is based on trenches for which data were available, rather than a measurement of every ocean-floor sediment deposit. (LLM, conf=0.93)
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In the paper
“The reasons for believing that it is essentially a primary trend were discussed in detail by Veizer et al. (1999).”
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Veizer et al. (1999) source
Section 10 (“Primary or secondary trends”) discusses evidence for the trend’s primary nature and argues against post-depositional alteration as its explanation. The paper concludes that the evidence is compelling for a primary Phanerozoic δ18O trend, at least in its major features. (LLM, conf=0.94)
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“The temperature dependency of calcium isotope fractionation enables this tracer to be a potential paleotemperature proxy (Eisenhauer et al., 2009; Nägler et al., 2000).”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Eisenhauer et al., 2009 source
- Supportedcites Nägler et al., 2000 source
The Introduction (§1, paragraphs [3]–[4]) identifies calcium isotopes as a possible sea-surface-temperature proxy and proposes a temperature–δ44Ca calibration for reconstructing past SST. The Discussion (§5, paragraph [16]) reports a positive correlation between calcium isotope fractionation in cultured foraminifera and SST. The paper notes limitations to the calibration, consistent with the claim’s description of a potential proxy. (LLM, conf=0.93)
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“Simultaneously, the labile nature of plagioclase relative to K-feldspar leads to a rise in the K2O/Na2O ratio.”
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In the paper
“Foreland basins, situated usually on the continental side of the continental-margin/arc-trench system, contain a higher proportion of coarse, often mature, clastics and some chemical sediments.”
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In the paper
§ 15 4 3 2 0
“The difference between the logarithm of S for the carbonate mass and that of the dolomite mass is the survival rate of the calcite mass.”
§ 424 Evolution of Sedimentary Rocks
“The difference between the survival rate of the total carbonate mass and that of dolomite is the mass of limestone surviving per interval of time.”
Citations
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Stolper, D. A., Eiler, J. M., & Higgins, J. A. (2018) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2018.01.037 · Cited by 56
Satkoski, A. M., Lowe, D. R., Beard, B. L., Coleman, M. L., & Johnson, C. M. (2016) · Earth and Planetary Science Letters · doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2016.08.032 · Cited by 46
Hohl, S. V., & Viehmann, S. (2021) · Earth-Science Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103683 · Cited by 55
Variation of ocean sediment thickness with crustal age
Olson, P. L., Reynolds, E., Hinnov, L. A., & Goswami, A. (2016) · Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems · doi:10.1002/2015gc006143 · Cited by 59
Moecher, D., Kelly, E. A., Hietpas, J., et al. (2019) · GSA Bulletin · doi:10.1130/b31947.1 · Cited by 27
Evolution of Sediment Fluxes and Ocean Salinity
Hay, W. W., Wold, C. N., Söding, E., & Floegel, S. (2001) · Computer Applications in the Earth Sciences · doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-1359-9_9 · Cited by 23
Plate tectonics, surface mineralogy, and the early evolution of life
Parnell, J. (2004) · International Journal of Astrobiology · doi:10.1017/s1473550404002101 · Cited by 19
Xing, J., Jiang, Y., Xian, H., Yang, W., Yang, Y., Niu, H., He, H., & Zhu, J. (2023) · Geoscience Frontiers · doi:10.1016/j.gsf.2023.101766 · Cited by 21
Thorpe, M. T., & Hurowitz, J. A. (2020) · Chemical Geology · doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2020.119673 · Cited by 17
The average Phanerozoic CO2 degassing flux estimated from the O-isotopic composition of seawater
Coogan, L. A., & Gillis, K. M. (2020) · Earth and Planetary Science Letters · doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2020.116151 · Cited by 13
The Sensitivity of the Phanerozoic Inorganic Carbon System to the Onset of Pelagic Sedimentation
Arvidson, R. S., Mackenzie, F. T., & Berner, R. A. (2014) · Aquatic Geochemistry · doi:10.1007/s10498-013-9224-5 · Cited by 12
Self-citationLiu, Y.-S., Chen, C.-F., He, D.-T., et al. (2021) · Science China. Earth Sciences · doi:10.1007/s11430-020-9764-1 · Cited by 8
El-Anwar, E. A. A. (2019) · Bulletin of the National Research Centre/Bulletin of the National Research Center · doi:10.1186/s42269-019-0240-5 · Cited by 8
The Early Earth as an Analogue for Exoplanetary Biogeochemistry
Stüeken, E. E., Olson, S. L., Moore, E. K., & Foley, B. J. (2024) · Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry · doi:10.2138/rmg.2024.90.14 · Cited by 5
Metadata
- Authors
- Veizer, J., & Mackenzie, F. T.
- Affiliations
- University of Ottawa (CA)
- University of Hawaii System (US)
- Venue
- Treatise on Geochemistry
- Publisher
- Elsevier
- Published
- 2014
- Pages
- 399-435
- OpenAlex
- W1610145251
- Semantic Scholar
- 474ab19eb85fbc8e4bc93f458dd5b739e84d26ec
- Cited by
- 1,592
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 22 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 32 · 2022: 29 · 2021: 41 · 2020: 66 · 2019: 55 · 2018: 35 · 2017: 40 · 2016: 41 · 2015: 55 · 2014: 36
- FWCI
- 73.16
- Type
- book chapter
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
- Locations
- Treatise on Geochemistry (publishedVersion)
- Medical Entomology and Zoology
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Geochemistry and Petrology › Geochemistry and Elemental Analysis
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Paleontology › Paleontology and Stratigraphy of Fossils
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Geochemistry and Petrology › Geological and Geochemical Analysis
- Keywords
- sedimentation rate, secular variation, sediment geochemistry, recycling, uniformitarianism, steady state
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-11, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-11 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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Data sources
Bibliographic data: Semantic Scholar, OpenAlex, Crossref.
Contains information from the Semantic Scholar Academic Graph Datasets, made available under the ODC Attribution License (ODC-BY 1.0).
Semantic Scholar’s data is described in: Kinney, R., et al. (2023). The Semantic Scholar Open Data Platform. arXiv:2301.10140.
