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YOU CAN'T PLAY 20 QUESTIONS WITH NATURE AND WIN: PROJECTIVE COMMENTS ON THE PAPERS OF THIS SYMPOSIUM
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“Understanding brain information processing requires that we build computational models that are capable of performing cognitive tasks.”
From Cognitive computational neuroscience (2018) · cites this paper as [1]
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“However, experiments will yield theoretical insight only when employed to test brain-computational models.”
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“Only synthesis in a computer simulation can reveal what the interaction of the proposed component mechanisms actually entails and whether it can account for the cognitive function in question.”
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“…framework, the framework suffers from theoretical and conceptual under-specification and inconsistency, and as a result lacks predictive validity (Cokely, 2009; Keren & Schul, 2010; Kruglanski & Gigerenzer, 2011; Gigerenzer & Regier, 1996; Osman, 2004; Newell, 1973; Reyna et al., 2009).”
BackgroundThe power law repealed: The case for an exponential law of practice
Heathcote, A., Brown, S. D., & Mewhort, D. J. K. (2000) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03212979 · Cited by 735
“Newell and Rosenbloom’s (1981) evidence for a power law of practice was based on a comparison of the fit of the three-parameter exponential function with the fit of the four-parameter power function, which they call the general power function.”
MethodInfluentialTwo Is Not Always Better Than One
Keren, G. B., & Schul, Y. (2009) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01164.x · Cited by 733
“More than four decades ago, in a frequently cited paper, Newell (1973) noted that psychology tends to conceptualize in terms of binary opposites (e.g., nature vs. nurture; serial vs. parallel processing).”
BackgroundThe perils of averaging data over strategies: An example from children's addition.
Siegler, R. S. (1987) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.116.3.250 · Cited by 672
Does Negative Priming Reflect Inhibitory Mechanisms? A Review and Integration of Conflicting Views
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Cognitive computational neuroscience
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“The argument in favor of task-performing computational models was well articulated by Allen Newell in his commentary “You can’t play 20 questions with nature and win” in 1973.(1) Newell was criticizing the state of cognitive psychology.”
BackgroundMemory for goals: an activation‐based model
Altmann, E. M., & Trafton, J. G. (2002) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1207/s15516709cog2601_2 · Cited by 795
“This independence is a lost opportunity to exploit mutual constraint among processes (Newell, 1973, 1990).”
BackgroundPirolli, P. L. T. (2007) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195173321.003.0001 · Cited by 484
Cognitive Tutor: Applied research in mathematics education
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Uncovering the structure of self-regulation through data-driven ontology discovery
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“Newell (1973a) has argued persuasively for systems-level research in cognitive science and artificial intelligence, claiming ‘‘You can’t play 20 questions with nature and win ” .”
BackgroundMethodHow Computational Modeling Can Force Theory Building in Psychological Science
Guest, O., & Martin, A. E. (2021) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691620970585 · Cited by 533
“Psychological scientists typically ascribe to a school of thought that specifies a framework, a theoretical position, or at least some basic hypotheses that they then set out to test using inferential statistics (Meehl, 1967; Newell, 1973).”
BackgroundInfluentialLaird, J. E., Lebiere, C., & Rosenbloom, P. S. (2017) · AI Magazine · doi:10.1609/aimag.v38i4.2744 · Cited by 392
“The concept of cognitive architecture originated in Newell’s even earlier criticism of task-specific models that induce a fragmented approach to cognitive science and the consequent difficulty of making cumulative progress (Newell 1973).”
BackgroundLearning from performance errors.
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“Manyyearsago,AlanNewell [2] remarkeduponpsychologists’habit ofconstructing binary oppositions – nature versus nurture, serial versus parallel, peripheral versus central, and so forth.”
Theory Construction Methodology: A Practical Framework for Building Theories in Psychology
Borsboom, D., van der Maas, H. L. J., Dalege, J., Kievit, R., & Haig, B. D. (2021) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691620969647 · Cited by 384
“It is useful to include classic works on (the absence of) good psychological theory such as those of Meehl (1978), Gigerenzer (1991, 2020), Newell (1973), and Simon (1977), as well as critical evaluations that highlight cases in which formal modeling may be less applicable or overshoot (e.g.,…”
BackgroundThe Basic-Systems Model of Episodic Memory
Rubin, D. C. (2006) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00017.x · Cited by 421
Abstract Planning and Perceptual Chunks: Elements of Expertise in Geometry
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“While it is true, as Newell and Simon (1972) pointed out, that there are multiple possible problem spaces for any problem, there is one problem space for geometry which is perhaps the most natural extension of the way geometry is typically taught.”
BackgroundInfluentialAshmore, R. D., & Boca, F. K. D. (1979) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/bf00287932 · Cited by 382
van Rooij, I., & Baggio, G. (2021) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691620970604 · Cited by 377
“As reasonable as this seems, without a prior theoretical framework to guide the way, collected effects are unlikely to add up and contribute to the growth of knowledge (Anderson, 1990; Cummins, 2000; Newell, 1973).”
BackgroundEstimation and interpretation of 1/fα noise in human cognition
Wagenmakers, E., Farrell, S., & Ratcliff, R. (2004) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03196615 · Cited by 305
“Furthermore, few psychologically interpretable models that generate LRD have been proposed, underscoring the fact that psychological research for long-range processes is at this point phenomenon driven rather than theory driven (cf. Newell, 1973).”
BackgroundAn integrated model of cognitive control in task switching.
Altmann, E. M., & Gray, W. D. (2008) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.115.3.602 · Cited by 315
The Development of Numerical Understandings
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An ecological theory of expertise effects in memory recall.
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“This is the kind of cumulative process growing science that Allen Newell (1973) called for in his famous “Twenty Questions” : a process that leads us gradually toward a broad and deep theory of the information processing mechanisms that underlie perception, discrimination, and learning and that…”
BackgroundNeuroQuery, comprehensive meta-analysis of human brain mapping
Dockès, J., Poldrack, R. A., Primet, R., Gözükan, H., Yarkoni, T., Suchanek, F. M., Thirion, B., & Varoquaux, G. P. (2020) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.53385 · Cited by 264
“In addition, studies are diverse in many ways: they investigate different mental processes, using different terms to describe them, and different experimental paradigms to probe them ( Newell, 1973 ).”
BackgroundExpert memory: a comparison of four theories
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A Simulation of Visual Imagery*
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How do we tell an association from a rule? Comment on Sloman (1996).
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The interplay of meaning, sound, and syntax in sentence production.
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“First, Peterson and Savoy (1998), using a production priming procedure in which participants were presented with pictures to be named, and occasionally with words to be named, showed that, for near synonyms, both lexical candidates were activated to the level of word form.”
MethodGraded modality-specific specialisation in semantics: A computational account of optic aphasia
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Representing serial action and perception
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“Although it is common and productive in cognitive science to take an oppositional view around a dichotomy of options (see Newell, 1973) with regard to the different forms of learning identified in the literature (and reviewed above), we propose here to integrate these forms into a multilevel…”
BackgroundQueueing Network-Model Human Processor (QN-MHP)
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“Early on I referenced Newell (1973) and his famous 20 questions essay.”
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“As they work reasonably well for humans, their use for evaluating machines has been suggested many times, even since the early days of AI, with the goal of constructing “a single program that would take a standard intelligence test” (Newell, 1973).”
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“Newell (1973) warned cognitive psychology that ‘‘you can’t play twenty questions with nature and win’’ (p. 283).”
BackgroundNaturalistic Decision Making and Macrocognition
Maarten, S. J., Militello, L. G., Ormerod, T., & Lipshitz, R. (2017) · CRC Press eBooks · doi:10.1201/9781315597584 · Cited by 187
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RAVEN: A Dataset for Relational and Analogical Visual REasoNing
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“Newell argued that one of the potential solutions to AI was “to construct a single program that would take a standard intelligence test” [42].”
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Computational Modeling of Emotion: Toward Improving the Inter- and Intradisciplinary Exchange
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“The recent interaction between psychology and computer science in the field of emotion has created a need to provide concise and precise summaries of psychological theories to nonspecialists who are at the same time accustomed to a high degree of precision.”
BackgroundCognitive arithmetic: Evidence for obligatory activation of arithmetic facts
LeFevre, J., Bisanz, J., & Mrkonjic, L. (1988) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03197744 · Cited by 179
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“Newell (1973) argued that a discriminating approach to research, such as Popper’s, only created negative knowledge about the mind and therefore, by itself, could not be an efficient strategy for advancing positive knowledge about how complex mental processes actually operated.2 Newell (1973) called…”
BackgroundInfluentialDetecting deception: adversarial problem solving in a low base-rate world
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“Production systems were then becoming increasingly popular in cognitive science and artificial intelligence (e.g. Newell 1972, 1973a).”
BackgroundA counter model for implicit priming in perceptual word identification.
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Diagnostic Reasoning and Medical Expertise
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The Benefits, Barriers, and Risks of Big-Team Science
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“Despite decades of investment, progress in psychology has been slower than many scholars would like (Fanelli, 2010; Meehl, 1978; Newell, 1973).”
BackgroundOn the distinction between deficits of access and deficits of storage: A question of theory
Rapp, B. C., & Caramazza, A. (1993) · Cognitive Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/02643299308253458 · Cited by 149
Metrics and mappings: A framework for understanding real-world quantitative estimation.
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The serial-parallel dilemma: A case study in a linkage of theory and method
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“In fact, some of our most esteemed investigators, such as Newell (1973), have questioned the benefits of attempting to settle simple binary issues and, instead, have striven to build mighty universal theories of cognitive behavior.12 We see much value in building general theories of cognition, as…”
BackgroundThe impact of chess research on cognitive science
Charness, N. H. (1992) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/bf01359217 · Cited by 148
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A cognitive framework for explaining serial processing and sequence execution strategies
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“Instead, most cognitive models are developed for a particular experimental paradigm without making clear how the proposed cognitive processes relate to those proposed by other cognitive models (for a classic and still valid critique, see Newell, 1973).”
BackgroundAn integrated theory for improved skill acquisition and retention in the three stages of learning
Kim, J. W., Ritter, F. E., & Koubek, R. J. (2011) · Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science · doi:10.1080/1464536x.2011.573008 · Cited by 139
The Cambridge Handbook of Personality Psychology
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The Oxford Handbook of Expertise
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An Architecturally-based Theory of Human Sentence Comprehension
Lewis, R. L. (2001) · Cited by 128
Hierarchical Control of Cognitive Processes
Logan, G. D., & Crump, M. J. C. (2011) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-385527-5.00001-2 · Cited by 139
“For better or for worse, a large amount of psychology is built around binary distinctions (Newell, 1973; Platt, 1964).”
Instance‐based Learning: A General Model of Repeated Binary Choice
Lejarraga, T., Dutt, V., & González, C. (2010) · Journal of Behavioral Decision Making · doi:10.1002/bdm.722 · Cited by 126
“The efficacy of this approach, therefore, has been questioned (Anderson & Lebiere, 2004; Cassimatis et al., 2010; Newell, 1973).”
BackgroundInstructional Scaffolding in STEM Education
Belland, B. R. (2017) · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-02565-0 · Cited by 161
Cognitive architectures and general intelligent systems
Pat Langley, B. (2006) · doi:10.1609/aimag.v27i2.1878 · Cited by 114
“As Newell (1973) argued, “You can’t play However, Newell’s vision for research on integrated theories of intelligence included more than either of these frameworks provides.”
BackgroundKlein, S. B. (2014) · Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Cognitive Science · doi:10.1002/wcs.1333 · Cited by 136
Using the ACT-R architecture to specify 39 quantitative process models of decision making
Marewski, J. N., & Mehlhorn, K. (2011) · Judgment and Decision Making · doi:10.1017/s1930297500002473 · Cited by 110
“At the same time, in the field of accessibility-based decision making and beyond, many have criticized the lack of specification of process hypotheses (e.g., Dougherty et al., 1999, 2008; Gigerenzer, 1996; 1998; Keren & Schul, 2009; A. Newell, 1973).”
BackgroundThe Flatland Fallacy: Moving Beyond Low–Dimensional Thinking
Jolly, E., & Chang, L. J. (2018) · Topics in Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/tops.12404 · Cited by 107
Inhibitory control in mind and brain 2.0: Blocked-input models of saccadic countermanding.
Logan, G. D., Yamaguchi, M., Schall, J. D., & Palmeri, T. J. (2015) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/a0038893 · Cited by 104
“Historically, cognitive research on broad binary distinctions has followed the same course, leading Newell (1973) to claim, “You can’t play 20 questions with nature and win” (p. 283).”
Epigenetic Robotics Architecture (ERA)
Morse, A. F., de Greeff, J., Belpeame, T., & Cangelosi, A. (2010) · IEEE Transactions on Autonomous Mental Development · doi:10.1109/tamd.2010.2087020 · Cited by 106
“To continue with Newell's example " ...our task in psychology is first to discover that structure which is fixed and invariant so that we can theoretically infer the [collection of] method[s] " [4].”
Evolution and Children’s Cognitive and Academic Development
Geary, D. C., & Berch, D. B. (2016) · Evolutionary Psychology · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-29986-0_9 · Cited by 101
Frank, M. C., & Saxe, R. (2012) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691612460686 · Cited by 175
“Replicating and extending allows researchers to create an interlocking edifice of findings, rather than an array of unconnected phenomena (Newell, 1973).”
BackgroundWhat can recent replication failures tell us about the theoretical commitments of psychology?
Klein, S. B. (2014) · Theory & Psychology · doi:10.1177/0959354314529616 · Cited by 101
“Absent such a guide, we have no way of knowing whether earlier studies are commensurate with, or antithetical to, whatever studies are presently under examination (e.g., Newell, 1973).”
BackgroundResultVisual analytics for complex concepts using a human cognition model
Green, T. M., Ribarsky, W., & Fisher, B. (2008) · IEEE Conference on Visual Analytics Science and Technology (VAST) · doi:10.1109/vast.2008.4677361 · Cited by 98
“It is, as Newell once wrote, as if "science advances by playing twenty questions with nature" [2].”
BackgroundKlein, S. B. (2013) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2013.00003 · Cited by 94
“Second, a good theory facilitates the organization of data sets that might otherwise have been viewed as collections of unrelated findings (e.g., Newell, 1973; Ladyman, 2002; GodfreySmith, 2003).”
Klein, S. B. (2016) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470218.2015.1007150 · Cited by 92
Précis of Statistical significance: Rationale, validity, and utility
Chow, S. L. (1998) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x98001162 · Cited by 94
Pellert, M., Lechner, C. M., Wagner, C., Rammstedt, B., & Strohmaier, M. (2024) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/17456916231214460 · Cited by 97
“Newell (1973) described the need to consolidate the disparate experimental results in (cognitive) psychology of his times into one body of knowledge in AI to progress.”
BackgroundInfluentialHow do scientific views change? Notes from an extended adversarial collaboration
Cowan, N., Belletier, C., Doherty, J. M., Jaroslawska, A. J., Rhodes, S., Forsberg, A., Naveh-Benjamin, M., Barrouillet, P., Camos, V., & Logie, R. H. (2020) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691620906415 · Cited by 89
“In the field of cognitive psychology, Newell (1973) wrote that “you can’t play 20 questions with nature and win,” and the concern he had then still rings true.”
BackgroundNeubauer, A. C. (2021) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2021.101563 · Cited by 106
Optimality and heuristics in perceptual neuroscience
Gardner, J. L. (2019) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/s41593-019-0340-4 · Cited by 94
Computational Models of Retrieval Processes in Sentence Processing
Vasishth, S., Nicenboim, B., Engelmann, F., & Burchert, F. (2019) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2019.09.003 · Cited by 86
Almaatouq, A., Griffiths, T. L., Suchow, J. W., Whiting, M. E., Evans, J., & Watts, D. J. (2022) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x22002874 · Cited by 134
Toward a Unified Theory of Reading
Sadoski, M., & Paivio, A. (2007) · Scientific Studies of Reading · doi:10.1080/10888430701530714 · Cited by 102
“In a famous paper, Newell (1973) questioned the wisdom of the piecemeal strategy because, rather than advancing toward unification, the field was becoming bogged down in an increasing array of smaller issues that never seemed to get settled.”
BackgroundThe development of personality across the lifespan
Donnellan, M. B., & Robins, R. W. (2012) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511596544.015 · Cited by 89
Knowing about Guessing and Guessing about Knowing: Preschoolers' Understanding of Indeterminacy
Fay, A. L., & Klahr, D. (1996) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01760.x · Cited by 89
Building and applying a human cognition model for visual analytics
Green, T. M., Ribarsky, W., & Fisher, B. (2009) · doi:10.1057/palgrave.ivs.2008.28 · Cited by 87
Metadata
- Authors
- Newell, A.
- Affiliations
- Carnegie Mellon University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Newell, Allen
- Venue
- Visual Information Processing
- Publisher
- Elsevier
- Published
- 1973
- Pages
- 283-308
- OpenAlex
- W95274681
- Cited by
- 820
- References
- 27
- Citations by year
- 2026: 28 · 2025: 29 · 2024: 35 · 2023: 34 · 2022: 28 · 2021: 33 · 2020: 96 · 2019: 32 · 2018: 37 · 2017: 34 · 2016: 24 · 2015: 20 · 2014: 22 · 2013: 28 · 2012: 34
- FWCI
- 14.70
- Type
- book chapter
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- figshare.com
- Licence
- Locations
- Elsevier eBooks (publishedVersion)
- KiltHub Repository (submittedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- KiltHub Repository
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History and Philosophy of Science › Cybernetics and Technology in Society
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History and Philosophy of Science › Interdisciplinary Research and Collaboration
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Management of Technology and Innovation › Scientific Research and Philosophical Inquiry
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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