The association of cigarette smoking with appetite, appetite-related hormones and food reward: a matched-pair cohort study
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This study examined associations of cigarette smoking with appetite perceptions, appetite-related hormones, food preferences and eating traits. In a cross-sectional matched-pair cohort design, 25 participants who smoke cigarettes and 25 who do not were matched 1:1 by age, sex, ethnicity, and BMI. Across two visits, participants' food preferences (Leeds Food Preference Questionnaire), cravings (Control of Eating Questionnaire), and eating traits (Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire) were assessed. Fasting and postprandial appetite perceptions (visual analogue scales) were also assessed during a 4-h mixed-meal tolerance test (MM-TT), while fasting leptin and fasting and postprandial acylated ghrelin and total peptide-YY (PYY) were measured for 2 h postprandially. Group differences in study outcomes were analysed using generalised linear models. After adjustment (age and BMI), explicit liking and wanting for high-fat foods and cravings for savoury foods were higher in participants who smoke versus those who do not (P ≤ 0.065; d ≥ 0.52). Cognitive restraint was lower, while disinhibition was higher in participants who smoke compared to those who do not (P ≤ 0.014; d ≥ 0.69). Smoking was also associated with lower fasting acylated ghrelin and lower postprandial total PYY (P ≤ 0.041; d ≥ 0.58), whereas fasting leptin was similar between groups (P = 0.821; d = 0.06). Additionally, participants who smoke had higher fasting perceived fullness (P = 0.021; d = 0.65), while no other fastin…
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Nicotine has appetite-suppressing effects, leading many smokers to report reduced food intake.
“Nicotine, the primary psychoactive component of tobacco, is known to cause appetite-suppressing effects leading many smokers to report reduced food intake on one hand”
From Smoking and its impact on eating behavior: A review (2026) · cites this paper as [2]
Smoking significantly influences eating behavior through physiological mechanisms primarily mediated by nicotine, including appetite suppression, altered metabolism and energy balance, and effects on hunger-related hormones such as ghrelin and leptin.
“Smoking significantly influences eating behavior through various physiological mechanisms, primarily mediated by nicotine. These mechanisms include appetite suppression, alteration in metabolism and energy balance and impact on hunger-related hormones such as ghrelin and lepton [2, 9].”
From Smoking and its impact on eating behavior: A review (2026) · cites this paper as [2]
Nicotine interacts with the brain's reward system and alters neurotransmitter activity, particularly dopamine and serotonin, which play key roles in hunger and satiety regulation.
“Studies have shown that nicotine interacts with the brain's reward system and alters neurotransmitter activity, particularly dopamine and serotonin, which play key roles in hunger and satiety regulation [2, 3, 4, 5-6].”
From Smoking and its impact on eating behavior: A review (2026) · cites this paper as [2]
Ghrelin levels in blood might increase while smoking cigarettes and decline upon quitting.
“According to some studies in the literature, ghrelin levels in the blood might increase while smoking cigarettes and decline upon quitting the habit [2, 12].”
From Smoking and its impact on eating behavior: A review (2026) · cites this paper as [2]
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- Authors
- Alruwaili, A., Nayeemullah, R., Engin, B., Malaikah, S., James, L., Sanders, J. P., Thivel, D., Thackray, A. E., Stensel, D. J., King, J. A., & Willis, S. A.
- Affiliations
- Loughborough University (GB)
- King Abdulaziz University (SA)
- Université Clermont Auvergne (FR)
- Corresponding author
- King, James A.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Appetite
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2025-10
- Volume
- 214
- Pages
- 108194
- ISSN
- 0195-6663 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4411251149
- Cited by
- 6
- References
- 65
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 1
- FWCI
- 2.79
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Appetite (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- National Institute for Health and Care Research
- NIHR Leicester Biomedical Research Centre
- King Saud bin Abdulaziz University for Health Science
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Regulation of Appetite and Obesity
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Smoking Behavior and Cessation
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
- Keywords
- cigarette smoking, food preferences, food cravings, food reward, leptin, acylated ghrelin, peptide YY, appetite-regulating hormones, mixed meal tolerance test, cognitive restraint, disinhibition
- MeSH terms
- Cigarette Smoking, Adult, Appetite, Cross-Sectional Studies, Fasting, Female, Food Preferences, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Surveys and Questionnaires, Reward, Cohort Studies, Body Mass Index, Matched-Pair Analysis, Postprandial Period, Peptide YY, Leptin, Ghrelin, Young Adult, Craving
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