Body-composition assessment via air-displacement plethysmography in adults and children: a review
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Laboratory-based body-composition techniques include hydrostatic weighing (HW), dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), measurement of total body water (TBW) by isotope dilution, measurement of total body potassium, and multicompartment models. Although these reference methods are used routinely, each has inherent practical limitations. Whole-body air-displacement plethysmography is a new practical alternative to these more traditional body-composition methods. We reviewed the principal findings from studies published between December 1995 and August 2001 that compared the BOD POD method (Life Measurement, Inc, Concord, CA) with reference methods and summarized factors contributing to the different study findings. The average of the study means indicates that the BOD POD and HW agree within 1% body fat (BF) for adults and children, whereas the BOD POD and DXA agree within 1% BF for adults and 2% BF for children. Few studies have compared the BOD POD with multicompartment models; those that have suggest a similar average underestimation of approximate 2-3% BF by both the BOD POD and HW. Individual variations between 2-compartment models compared with DXA and 4 -compartment models are partly attributable to deviations from the assumed chemical composition of the body. Wide variations among study means, -4.0% to 1.9% BF for BOD POD - HW and -3.0% to 1.7% BF for BOD POD - DXA, are likely due in part to differences in laboratory equipment, study design, and subject characteristics and in some cases to failure to follow the manufacturer's recommended protocol. Wide intersubject variations between methods are partly attributed to technical precision and biological error but to a large extent remain unexplained. On the basis of this review, future research goals are suggested.
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ADP is a valid method to determine body composition compared with hydrodensitometry and the four-compartment model in adults.
“Recently, it has been reported that air displacement plethysmography (ADP) is a valid method to determine body composition compared with hydrodensitometry and the four compartment model in adults [5,6].”
It is impossible to separate the confounding effects of subject sex and percent body fat in ADP versus hydrostatic weighing studies.
“Therefore they conclude that in their analysis as in the individual studies, it is impossible to separate the confounding effects of subject sex and % body fat.”
A review of ADP versus hydrostatic weighing in adults found mean group differences from -4% to 1.9% body fat, with 5 of 12 studies showing no significant difference, inconsistent direction among the other 7, and percent fat by ADP explaining 78-94% of the variance in percent body fat by HW with SEEs of 1.8 to 2.3%.
“Mean group differences between ADP and HW measurements ranged from -4% to 1.9 % body fat; 5 of the 12 studies showed no significant difference between the two methods. Of the other 7 studies that did show a significant mean difference, the direction of the differences was inconsistent. Percent fat measured by ADP explained 78–94 % of the variance in % body fat measured by HW and the reported SEEs”
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Obesity in children and young people: a crisis in public health
Lobstein, T., Baur, L., & Uauy, R. (2004) · Obesity Reviews · doi:10.1111/j.1467-789x.2004.00133.x · Cited by 3,801 · see citing works
Blundell, J., Finlayson, G., Axelsen, M., Flint, A., Gibbons, C., Kvist, T., & Hjerpsted, J. B. (2017) · Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism · doi:10.1111/dom.12932 · Cited by 693 · see citing works
Das, S. K., Gilhooly, C. H., Golden, J. K., Pittas, A. G., Fuss, P. J., Cheatham, R. A., Tyler, S., Tsay, M., McCrory, M. A., Lichtenstein, A. H., et al. (2007) · The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/85.4.1023 · Cited by 314 · see citing works
Self-citationvan Dijk, S. J., Feskens, E. J., Bos, M. B., Hoelen, D. W., Heijligenberg, R., Bromhaar, M. G., de Groot, L. C., de Vries, J. H., Müller, M., & Afman, L. A. (2009) · The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.3945/ajcn.2009.27792 · Cited by 291 · see citing works
Gómez‐Ambrosi, J., Silva, C., Galofré, J. C., Escalada, J., Santos, S., Gil, M. J., Valentí, V., Rotellar, F., Ramírez, B., Salvador, J., et al. (2011) · Obesity · doi:10.1038/oby.2011.36 · Cited by 264 · see citing works
Sargeant, J. A., Henson, J., King, J. A., Yates, T., Khunti, K., & Davies, M. J. (2019) · Endocrinology and Metabolism · doi:10.3803/enm.2019.34.3.247 · Cited by 231 · see citing works
Gomez-Arbelaez, D., Bellido, D., Castro, A. I., Ordoñez-Mayan, L., Carreira, J., Galban, C., Martinez-Olmos, M. A., Crujeiras, A. B., Sajoux, I., & Casanueva, F. F. (2017) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2016-2385 · Cited by 214 · see citing works
Caudwell, P., Finlayson, G., Gibbons, C., Hopkins, M., King, N., Näslund, E., & Blundell, J. E. (2013) · The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.3945/ajcn.111.029975 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
Burger, K. S., & Stice, E. (2012) · The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.3945/ajcn.111.027003 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Heymsfield, S. B., Ebbeling, C. B., Zheng, J., Pietrobelli, A., Strauss, B. J., Silva, A. M., & Ludwig, D. S. (2015) · Obesity Reviews · doi:10.1111/obr.12261 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Lazzer, S., Bedogni, G., Agosti, F., De Col, A., Mornati, D., & Sartorio, A. (2008) · British Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114508922558 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Karl, J. P., Meydani, M., Barnett, J. B., Vanegas, S. M., Goldin, B., Kane, A., Rasmussen, H., Saltzman, E., Vangay, P., Knights, D., et al. (2017) · The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.3945/ajcn.116.139683 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Vicente‐Rodríguez, G., Rey‐López, J. P., Mesana, M. I., Poortvliet, E., Ortega, F. B., Polito, A., Nagy, E., Widhalm, K., Sjöström, M., Moreno, L. A., et al. (2012) · Obesity · doi:10.1038/oby.2011.272 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
2025 ACC Scientific Statement on the Management of Obesity in Adults With Heart Failure
Kittleson, M. M., Benjamin, E. J., Blumer, V., Harrington, J., Januzzi, J. L., McMurray, J. J. V., & Vest, A. R. (2025) · JACC · doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2025.05.008 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Body fat measurement in adolescent athletes: multicompartment molecular model comparison.
Silva, A. M., Minderico, C. S., Teixeira, P. J., Pietrobelli, A., & Sardinha, L. B. (2006) · European Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602405 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Activity energy expenditure is an independent predictor of energy intake in humans
Hopkins, M., Duarte, C., Beaulieu, K., Finlayson, G., Gibbons, C., Johnstone, A. M., Whybrow, S., Horgan, G. W., Blundell, J. E., & Stubbs, R. J. (2019) · International Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1038/s41366-018-0308-6 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Macias, N., Alemán-Mateo, H., Esparza-Romero, J., & Valencia, M. E. (2007) · Nutrition Journal · doi:10.1186/1475-2891-6-18 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“composition using ADP[6] analyzed the validity of ADP relative to hydrostatic weighing (HW) in male and female adults, age 20–56 years.”
MethodTotal and regional body volumes derived from dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry output
Wilson, J. P., Fan, B., & Shepherd, J. A. (2013) · Journal of Clinical Densitometry · doi:10.1016/j.jocd.2012.11.001 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Tinsley, G. M. (2021) · British Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114520003578 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Gutiérrez-Marín, D., Escribano, J., Closa-Monasterolo, R., Ferré, N., Venables, M., Singh, P., Wells, J. C., Muñoz-Hernando, J., Zaragoza-Jordana, M., Gispert-Llauradó, M., et al. (2021) · Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2021.02.001 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Hames, K. C., Anthony, S. J., Thornton, J. C., Gallagher, D., & Goodpaster, B. H. (2014) · Obesity · doi:10.1002/oby.20655 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Schweitzer, G., Smith, J., & LeCheminant, J. (2009) · International Journal of Exercise Science · doi:10.70252/qdmj2907 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Alruwaili, A., Nayeemullah, R., Engin, B., Malaikah, S., James, L., Sanders, J. P., Thivel, D., Thackray, A. E., Stensel, D. J., King, J. A., et al. (2025) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2025.108194 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Cretescu, I., Munteanu, O., Mocanu, V., & Horhat, R. (2026) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app16021082
- Authors
- Fields, D. A., Goran, M. I., & McCrory, M. A.
- Affiliations
- University of Southern California (US)
- Venue
- The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2002-03
- Volume
- 75
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 453-467
- ISSN
- 0002-9165 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1957255860
- Cited by
- 638
- References
- 97
- Citations by year
- 2026: 24 · 2025: 24 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 23 · 2022: 27 · 2021: 34 · 2020: 27 · 2019: 37 · 2018: 30 · 2017: 28 · 2016: 29 · 2015: 39 · 2014: 32 · 2013: 33 · 2012: 32
- FWCI
- 12.41
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Body Composition Measurement Techniques
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Obesity, Physical Activity, Diet
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Orthopedics and Sports Medicine › Bone health and osteoporosis research
- Keywords
- body composition, air displacement plethysmography, BOD POD, hydrostatic weighing, dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, fat mass, measurement agreement, multi-compartment model, total body water, children, adults, measurement error
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Anthropometry, Body Composition, Body Water, Child, Female, Humans, Isotopes, Male, Middle Aged, Models, Biological, Obesity, Plethysmography, Radioisotope Dilution Technique, Reference Values, Sensitivity and Specificity, Reproducibility of Results, Absorptiometry, Photon
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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