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Do psychiatric patients experience more psychiatric symptoms during COVID-19 pandemic and lockdown? A case-control study with service and research implications for immunopsychiatry
Open accessAbstract
This study aimed to assess and compare the immediate stress and psychological impact experienced by people with and without psychiatric illnesses during the peak of 2019 coronavirus disease (COVID-19) epidemic with strict lockdown measures. Seventy-six psychiatric patients and 109 healthy control subjects were recruited from Chongqing, China and completed a survey on demographic data, physical symptoms during the past 14 days and a range of psychiatric symptoms using the Impact of Event Scale-Revised (IES-R), Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS-21) and Insomnia Severity Index (ISI). IES-R measures PTSD symptoms in survivorship after an event. DASS-21 is based on tripartite model of psychopathology that comprise a general distress construct with distinct characteristics. The mean IES-R, DASS-21 anxiety, depression and stress subscale and ISI scores were higher in psychiatric patients than healthy controls (p < 0.001). Serious worries about their physical health, anger and impulsivity and intense suicidal ideation were significantly higher in psychiatric patients than healthy controls (p < 0.05). More than one-third of psychiatric patients might fulfil the diagnostic criteria post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). More than one-quarter of psychiatric patients suffered from moderately severe to severe insomnia. Respondents who reported no change, poor or worse physical health status and had a psychiatric illness were significantly more likely to have higher mean IES-R, DASS depression, anxiety and stress subscale scores and ISI scores (p < 0.05). This study confirms the severity of negative psychological impact on psychiatric patients during the COVID-19 epidemic with strict lockdown measures. Understanding the psychological impact on psychiatric patients during the COVID-19 pandemic has the potential to provide insight into how to develop a new immunopsychiatry service. Further research is required to compare pro-inflammatory cytokines between psychiatric patients and healthy controls during the pandemic.
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“Evidence suggests that this disease has psychological consequences on healthcare workers, students, psychiatric patients and general workers, especially for COVID-19 patients [4–13].”
From Mindfulness-based online intervention on mental health and quality of life among COVID-19 patients in China: an intervention design (2021) · cites this paper as [7]
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“So far, data clearly indicate disproportional consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic (16–18), even a potentially increased suicide risk (18), and an increase of adversities (19) in patients suffering from mental health disorders.”
From Radical Acceptance of Reality: Putting DBT®-A Skill Groups Online During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Qualitative Study (2022) · cites this paper as [18]
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“DASS was previously used in research related to SARS (McAlonan et al., 2007) and COVID-19 (Wang et al., 2020a,b).”
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“Further research is required to evaluate the effectiveness of these psychoneuroimmunity preventive strategies to enhance resilience (Ho et al., 2020).”
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“Nevertheless, the COVID-19 pandemic has a sudden and massive impact on health care infrastructure, transportation, daily activity, freedom of movement, and distribution of medical resources globally (Gautam and Sharma, 2020; Joob and Wiwanitkit, 2020; Simpson and Katsanis, 2020).”
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InfluentialFear of COVID-19 and Its Association With Health Literacy in Elderly Patients
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Xie, M., Tang, Y., Zhu, L., Dai, M., Wu, Y., Huang, Y., Liu, Y., Xiao, L., Li, T., & Wang, Q. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.782913 · Cited by 13
“The DASS-21 subscales were scored as follows: normal (0–9), mild (10–13), moderate (14–20), severe (21–27), and extremely severe (28+) for depression; normal (0–7), mild (8,9), moderate (10–14), severe (15–19), and extremely severe (20+) for anxiety; normal (0–14), mild (15–18), moderate (19– 25), severe (26–33), and…”
The Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on Obsession and Compulsion Symptoms in Saudi Arabia
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National Academy of Medicine of Korea (NAMOK) Key Statements on COVID-19
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Lifestyles and Quality of Life of People with Mental Illness During the COVID-19 Pandemic
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RetractedImpact of COVID-19 pandemic on emergency psychiatry-Millcreek community hospital, Erie, PA
Janoczkin, A., Kiers, S., Edara, N., He, P., & Li, Y. (2021) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2021.152255 · Cited by 9
Keller, F. M., Dahmen, A., Derksen, C., Kötting, L., & Lippke, S. (2021) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/30610 · Cited by 12
“In prior research, individuals with a pre-existing mental health disorder reported poorer access to support services since the beginning of the pandemic, had earlier discharges from psychiatric units, or had discontinuation of psychotherapy treatments [53-55].”
Analysis of the Consequences of the COVID-19 Pandemic on People with Severe Mental Disorders
Sánchez-Guarnido, A. J., Hidalgo, N., de la Cruz, J. A., Esteban, I., Mondón, S., & Herruzo, C. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18168549 · Cited by 10
“The paralysis of activity during the period of lockdown also had an impact on the transportation and distribution of medical resources worldwide, and these changes in infrastructure and mobility could have contributed to reducing access to mental health services [43].”
Caldirola, D., Cuniberti, F., Daccò, S., Grassi, M., Torti, T., & Perna, G. (2022) · Journal of Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.neuropsych.21060148 · Cited by 10
Liu, R., Xu, X., Zou, S., Li, Y., Wang, H., Yan, X., Du, X., Zhang, L., Zhang, Q., Li, W., et al. (2022) · Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology · doi:10.1177/08919887221078557 · Cited by 11
“Furthermore, the associated stigma and discrimination of unstable mental illness could lead to severe psychological distress and hence increase the risk of suicidality.(58,59) Similar to previous findings,(60-62) we found that patients with a primary diagnosis of MDD and those suffering from severe depressive symptoms…”
Self-citationKan, Z., Søegaard, E. G. I., Siqveland, J., Hussain, A., Hanssen‐Bauer, K., Jensen, P., Heiervang, K. S., Ringen, P. A., Ekeberg, Ø., Hem, E., et al. (2022) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare10050875 · Cited by 11
“A study from China which compared psychiatric patients and healthy controls found similarly more worsening among the patients [11].”
Bassiony, M. M., Sehlo, M. G., Ibrahim, E. F., Zayed, A. E., & Atwa, S. A. (2022) · International Journal of Psychiatry in Clinical Practice · doi:10.1080/13651501.2022.2124175 · Cited by 11
“In addition, Hao et al. (2020) observed a negative psychological impact on psychiatric patients during the COVID-19 pandemic.”
Barlati, S., Nibbio, G., Bianchi, F. P., Gigli, E. B. L., Calzavara‐Pinton, I., Cerati, C., Fiori, J., Lisoni, J., Deste, G., & Vita, A. (2022) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2022.114878 · Cited by 10
“…of availability of pharmacological treatments and psychosocial interventions, could lead to a significant worsening of their clinical condition, including a higher risk of relapse (Barlati et al., 2021; Hao et al., 2020; Thomas et al., 2020; Valdés-Florido et al., 2020; Vita and Barlati, 2022).”
Chen, P., Zhao, Y., An, F., Li, X.-H., Lam, M. I., Lok, K.-I., Wang, Y., Li, J.-X., Su, Z., Cheung, T. C. C., et al. (2023) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-023-05194-w · Cited by 13
Rosenblat, J. D., Lipsitz, O., Vincenzo, J. D. D., Rodrigues, N. B., Kratiuk, K., Subramaniapillai, M., Lee, Y. L., Arekapudi, A. K., Abrishami, A., Chau, E. H., et al. (2021) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2021.114086 · Cited by 11
“Evidence shows quarantine/social isolation measures (although effective at lessening the burden of COVID-19) increase the risk of negative mental health outcomes, especially among vulnerable groups such as individuals with pre-existing mood disorders (Hao et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2021).”
Self-citationMigraine Monitoring in the Time of COVID-19: Triggers and Protectors During a Pandemic
di Cola, F. S., Caratozzolo, S., Cesare, M. D., Liberini, P., Rao, R., & Padovani, A. (2021) · Pain Medicine · doi:10.1093/pm/pnab202 · Cited by 10
Ortega, A. C., Valtierra, E., Rodríguez-Cuevas, F. G., Aranda, Z., Preciado, G., & Mohar, S. (2021) · Global Health Action · doi:10.1080/16549716.2021.1997410 · Cited by 12
“orders [53], and intimate partner violence [54].”
Sunjaya, D. K., Sumintono, B., Gunawan, E., Herawati, D., & Hidayat, T. (2022) · Psychology Research and Behavior Management · doi:10.2147/prbm.s347386 · Cited by 13
“PTSD has been reported as a psychological effect of SARS and virus H1N1 epidemics, and recently used in COVID-19 pandemic studies too.(20,21) Therefore, PTSD should also receive attention in the COVID-19 pandemic.”
Kertzscher, L., Kohls, E., Baldofski, S., Moeller, R., Schomerus, G., & Rummel‐Kluge, C. (2022) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2022.152313 · Cited by 11
“Since it is known that major depression is associated with significant difficulties in accessing primary care [24], that people with mental disorders experience higher stress levels than people without mental disorders during the COVID-19 pandemic [18], and also during the lockdown in the general population loneliness…”
Wathelet, M., Vincent, C., Fovet, T., Notredame, C.-É., Habran, E., Martignène, N., Baubet, T., Vaïva, G., & D’Hondt, F. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.868369 · Cited by 16
“Importantly, we found more frequent suicidal ideations among students who reported other severe mental health symptoms after the lift of the quarantine, which is consistent with the high prevalence of suicidal ideations in people affected by psychiatric symptoms and disorders (23), including during pandemic crises (24…”
Pedruzo, B., Catalán, A., Aymerich, C., Bordenave, M., Estévez, O., Gómez, D. A., Herrero, J., Laborda, M., Mancebo, G., Martínez, A., et al. (2022) · Revista de Psiquiatría y Salud Mental · doi:10.1016/j.rpsm.2022.04.004 · Cited by 11
Benatti, B., Albert, U., Maina, G., Celebre, L., Girone, N., Bramante, S., Rigardetto, S., Viganò, C. A., & Dell’Osso, B. M. (2022) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2022.07.058 · Cited by 9
Jiang, Y., Lu, R., Ou, M., Zhou, Q., Du, Z., & Zhu, H. (2023) · Asian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.ajp.2023.103532 · Cited by 10
“On the other hand, patients with mental illness who cannot come to the hospital for medical treatment and dispensing medicines in time, resulting in a decrease in medication compliance (Bojdani et al., 2020; Hao et al., 2020).”
Al-Aghbari, A. A., Hassan, O. E. H., Iang, M. D., Jahn, A., Horstick, O., & Dureab, F. A. (2023) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare11070952 · Cited by 10
“The COVID-19 infodemic has formed widespread worry, anxiety, confusion, and suffering in the general public, significantly among persons who lack proper digital literacy and people with mental problems [12].”
Bertollo, A. G., Braga, G. D. C., Tonin, P. T., Luzardo, A. R., Bagatini, M. D., & Ignácio, Z. M. (2023) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci13101414 · Cited by 13
“The stress generated by fear of the disease and social uncertainties increased the symptoms and suffering of people with neuropsychiatric disorders, and it precipitated the onset of disorders in individuals with some biopsychosocial vulnerability [78].”
Dalkner, N., Wagner‐Skacel, J., Ratzenhofer, M., Fellendorf, F. T., Lenger, M., Maget, A., Tmava‐Berisha, A., Pilz, R., Queissner, R., Hamm, C., et al. (2021) · International Journal of Bipolar Disorders · doi:10.1186/s40345-021-00222-8 · Cited by 9
Li, J. T. S., Lee, C. P., & Tang, W. K. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19031181 · Cited by 10
“revealed that psychiatric patients in China had higher mean Impact of Event Scale-Revised (IES-R); Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS-21); and Insomnia Severity Index (ISI) scores than healthy controls during the early stage of the COVID-19 outbreak [37].”
Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Suicidal Behavior in Romania
Vușcan, M. E., Buciuta, A., Vică, M. L., Bâlici, Ș., Rusu, S. I., Siserman, C. V., Coman, H. G., & Matei, H. V. (2022) · Archives of Suicide Research · doi:10.1080/13811118.2021.2022052 · Cited by 9
“compared the impact of the pandemic on the mental health of psychiatric patients with the general population (Hao et al., 2020).”
Mental Health and Access to Information in Times of COVID-19: The Role of Social Work
Romea, A. C., Valero, D., Saso, C. E., & Melgar, P. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19084483 · Cited by 11
“ICT have also been applied to numerous fields, including medicine and mental health, and have proven to be a helpful resource that is demanded by professionals and patients alike [13] However, not all the”
Babicki, M., Bogudzińska, B., Kowalski, K., & Mastalerz–Migas, A. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19169934 · Cited by 9
“Moreover, the overloading of the health care system during the pandemic resulted in reduced access to psychiatrists, which may have resulted in an exacerbation of pre-existing psychopathological symptoms [62].”
Luo, X., Xu, Q., Fan, K., Wang, J., Wei, D., Wang, X., Lou, X., Lin, H., Wang, C., Wu, C., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2022.936700 · Cited by 9
Self-citationThe course of psychiatric symptoms in older age bipolar disorder during the COVID-19 pandemic
Orhan, M., Korten, N. C. M., Kok, A. A. L., Loef, D., Kupka, R., Schouws, S. N. T. M., van Oppen, P., & Dols, A. (2022) · International Journal of Bipolar Disorders · doi:10.1186/s40345-022-00274-4 · Cited by 9
“Studies that investigated the effects of the COVID-19 outbreak show greater psychological distress in psychiatric patients when compared with healthy controls (Hao et al. 2020).”
D’Urso, G., Magliacano, A., Dell’Osso, B. M., Lamberti, H., Luciani, A., Mariniello, T. S., Pomes, M. V., Rifici, L. M., The COVID in OCD Study Group, Iasevoli, F., et al. (2023) · European Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/j.eurpsy.2023.2416 · Cited by 9
Conditions affecting postpartum depression in the Covid-19 pandemic
Koyuncu, K., Alan, Y., Sakin, Ö., Aktaş, H. A., & Anğın, A. D. (2020) · Medical Science and Discovery · doi:10.36472/msd.v7i8.413 · Cited by 9
Depression during the COVID-19 pandemic (analysis of clinical cases)
Dorozhenok, I. Y. (2021) · Neurology neuropsychiatry Psychosomatics · doi:10.14412/2074-2711-2021-1-81-86 · Cited by 47
Qiu, Y., Huang, J., Sun, J., Zhao, J., Chen, A., Chen, J., Wu, R., Li, S., Teng, Z., Tan, Y., et al. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.622339 · Cited by 9
Self-citationAl-Shannaq, Y., & Mohammad, A. A. (2021) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e07826 · Cited by 9
“Our findings are consistent with the results of previous studies conducted during the initial outbreak of COVID-19, which reported that having physical disorders and having mental disorders are factors associated with experiencing greater psychological impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic (Alkhamees et al., 2020; Al-Shann…”
Autoimmune mediated hyperkinetic movement disorders in SARS-CoV-2 infection — a systematic review
Hirschfeld, A. S. (2021) · Neurologia i Neurochirurgia Polska · doi:10.5603/pjnns.a2021.0069 · Cited by 10
“There are also studies indicating an increase in the incidence of psychiatric disorders during the COVID-19 pandemic [91].”
Albano, G., Bonfanti, R. C., Gullo, S., Salerno, L., & Coco, G. L. (2021) · Research in Psychotherapy Psychopathology Process and Outcome · doi:10.4081/ripppo.2021.557 · Cited by 11
Mental Health and Alcohol Use during and before the Early Phases of the COVID-19 Pandemic
Sumetsky, N., Frankeberger, J., Coulter, R. W. S., Burke, J. G., Friedman, M. R., & Mair, C. (2022) · Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1080/08964289.2021.2015278 · Cited by 9
Rodriguez‐Moreno, D. V., Vazquez, S. M., Cheslack‐Postava, K., Xu, G., & Cycowicz, Y. M. (2022) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2022.106104 · Cited by 11
“(Hao et al., 2020) reported that psychiatric patients under strict lockdown scored significantly higher in depression, anxiety and stress scales at the peak of the pandemic.”
Rozental, A., Sörman, K., Ojala, O., Jangard, S., Alaoui, S. E., Månsson, K. N. T., Shahnavaz, S., Lundin, J., Forsström, D., Hedman‐Lagerlöf, M., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.933858 · Cited by 9
“(7) was among the first to highlight that individuals with psychiatric problems are a vulnerable population in the context of the pandemic and resulting lock downs, where adaptations need to be made within the health care services to better meet their needs (e.”
Yin, R., Tian, R., Wu, J., & Gan, F. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph191912579 · Cited by 9
“confirmed the negative psychological impact experienced by people during the COVID-19 pandemic and provide insights into the development of a new immunopsychiatry service [9].”
Balsamo, M., Murdock, K. K., & Carlucci, L. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0278628 · Cited by 12
Prevalence and risk for symptoms of PTSD among survivors of a COVID-19 infection
Xiao, W., Liu, X., Wang, H., Huang, Y., Dai, Z., Si, M., Fu, J., Chen, X., Jia, M., Leng, Z., et al. (2023) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2023.115304 · Cited by 9
Giusti, L., Mammarella, S., Vecchio, S. D., Salza, A., CASACCHIA, M., & Roncone, R. (2023) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs13110892 · Cited by 13
“Indeed, females are characterized by a higher prevalence of risk factors known to intensify during a pandemic, including chronic environmental strain [30], pre-existing depressive and anxiety disorders [31], and domestic violence [32–34].”
Lu, L., Liu, G., Xu, Y., Jiang, J., & Wei, Z. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1297112 · Cited by 8
Holman, S., Steinberg, R. J., Sinyor, M., Lane, H., Starritt, K., Kennedy, S. H., Niederkrotenthaler, T., Zaretsky, A. E., Castel, S., & Schaffer, A. (2022) · The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/07067437221121111 · Cited by 8
“8–10 While at the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic the number of psychiatric admissions decreased in Canada,(11) individuals with pre-existing psychiatric conditions were especially vulnerable to worsening mental health.(12) The primary objective of our pilot study was to determine whether, during a pandemic, there…”
Cusihuaman-Lope, N., Vilela-Estrada, A. L., Cavero, V., Villarreal‐Zegarra, D., & Diez‐Canseco, F. (2023) · Revista Peruana de Medicina Experimental y Salud Pública · doi:10.17843/rpmesp.2023.403.12717 · Cited by 8
“…with non-psychiatric and psychiatric patients, concluded that the latter presented higher symptoms of stress, depression, anxiety and insomnia during the pandemic, and more concerns about their physical health, irritability and suicidal ideation during the months with more restrictions (21) .”
Metadata
- Authors
- Hao, F., Tan, W., Jiang, L., Zhang, L., Zhao, X., Zou, Y., Hu, Y., Luo, X., Jiang, X., McIntyre, R. S., Tran, B., Sun, J., Zhang, Z., Ho, R., Ho, C., & Tam, W.
- Affiliations
- First People's Hospital of Chongqing (CN)
- National University of Singapore (SG)
- Army Medical University (CN)
- University Health Network (CA)
- Johns Hopkins University (US)
- Huaibei Normal University (CN)
- National University Health System (SG)
- Corresponding author
- Ho, Roger
- ORCID
- Venue
- Brain, Behavior, and Immunity
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2020-07
- Volume
- 87
- Pages
- 100-106
- ISSN
- 0889-1591 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7184991
- OpenAlex
- W3020448761
- Cited by
- 968
- References
- 43
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 27 · 2024: 65 · 2023: 107 · 2022: 257 · 2021: 332 · 2020: 171
- FWCI
- 86.61
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Brain Behavior and Immunity (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Rare & Special e-Zone (The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Vingroup Innovation Foundation
- National University of Singapore (VINIF.2020.Covid19.DA07, R-722-000-004-731)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Keywords
- COVID-19 pandemic, lockdown, psychiatric patients, psychiatric symptoms, post-traumatic stress disorder, insomnia, depression, anxiety, stress, suicidal ideation, immunopsychiatry, physical health status, inflammatory cytokines
- MeSH terms
- Betacoronavirus, COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, Adult, Anxiety, Anxiety Disorders, Mental Disorders, China, Depression, Female, Health Status, Humans, Sleep Initiation and Maintenance Disorders, Male, Middle Aged, Pneumonia, Viral, Psychoneuroimmunology, Surveys and Questionnaires, Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic, Stress, Psychological, Case-Control Studies, Coronavirus, Coronavirus Infections, Pandemics
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