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Do psychiatric patients experience more psychiatric symptoms during COVID-19 pandemic and lockdown? A case-control study with service and research implications for immunopsychiatry
Open accessAbstract
This study aimed to assess and compare the immediate stress and psychological impact experienced by people with and without psychiatric illnesses during the peak of 2019 coronavirus disease (COVID-19) epidemic with strict lockdown measures. Seventy-six psychiatric patients and 109 healthy control subjects were recruited from Chongqing, China and completed a survey on demographic data, physical symptoms during the past 14 days and a range of psychiatric symptoms using the Impact of Event Scale-Revised (IES-R), Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS-21) and Insomnia Severity Index (ISI). IES-R measures PTSD symptoms in survivorship after an event. DASS-21 is based on tripartite model of psychopathology that comprise a general distress construct with distinct characteristics. The mean IES-R, DASS-21 anxiety, depression and stress subscale and ISI scores were higher in psychiatric patients than healthy controls (p < 0.001). Serious worries about their physical health, anger and impulsivity and intense suicidal ideation were significantly higher in psychiatric patients than healthy controls (p < 0.05). More than one-third of psychiatric patients might fulfil the diagnostic criteria post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). More than one-quarter of psychiatric patients suffered from moderately severe to severe insomnia. Respondents who reported no change, poor or worse physical health status and had a psychiatric illness were significantly more likely to have higher mean IES-R, DASS depression, anxiety and stress subscale scores and ISI scores (p < 0.05). This study confirms the severity of negative psychological impact on psychiatric patients during the COVID-19 epidemic with strict lockdown measures. Understanding the psychological impact on psychiatric patients during the COVID-19 pandemic has the potential to provide insight into how to develop a new immunopsychiatry service. Further research is required to compare pro-inflammatory cytokines between psychiatric patients and healthy controls during the pandemic.
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“Evidence suggests that this disease has psychological consequences on healthcare workers, students, psychiatric patients and general workers, especially for COVID-19 patients [4–13].”
From Mindfulness-based online intervention on mental health and quality of life among COVID-19 patients in China: an intervention design (2021) · cites this paper as [7]
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“So far, data clearly indicate disproportional consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic (16–18), even a potentially increased suicide risk (18), and an increase of adversities (19) in patients suffering from mental health disorders.”
From Radical Acceptance of Reality: Putting DBT®-A Skill Groups Online During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Qualitative Study (2022) · cites this paper as [18]
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Удут, В. В., Naumov, S. A., Удут, Е. В., Naumov, S. S., Evtushenko, D. N., Chumakova, O. N., & Zyuz’kov, G. N. (2022) · Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10517-022-05393-7 · Cited by 5
“and requiring rehabilitation measures [5,9,14,15].”
Groef, A. D., Hallemans, A., Gebruers, N., Meirte, J., Saeys, W., Truijen, S., Haenen, V., Johnson, C., Meert, L., Peeters, L., et al. (2022) · Physiotherapy Theory and Practice · doi:10.1080/09593985.2022.2036278 · Cited by 5
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“Patients with MDD and anxiety disorder are exceptionally vulnerable.(9) Most mental health services and education related to the COVID-19 (e.”
Self-citationPsychiatric Manifestations of COVID-19: A Literature Review
Khatun, A., Tamilanban, T., & Chitra, V. (2022) · CNS & Neurological Disorders - Drug Targets · doi:10.2174/1871527321666220701152821 · Cited by 5
Wang, D., Zhai, S., Chen, J., Chen, Y., Hua, S., Wang, C., Fan, F., & Liu, X. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.845929 · Cited by 8
“For some special groups, such as psychiatric patients (3), frontline healthcare workers (4), and even patients infected with COVID-19 (5), their mental health is even more likely to be affected by the pandemic.”
Soysal, A. N. O., Şimşek, Ş., Özdemi̇r, A. K., & Aslan, Ü. B. (2022) · Work · doi:10.3233/wor-211161 · Cited by 7
Rowe, E., Harris, C. D., Dzafic, I., & Garrido, M. I. (2023) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.26230 · Cited by 5
“Anxiety affects clinical (Hao et al., 2020) and nonclinical populations (Cao et al.”
Kuroda, Y., Goto, A., Koriyama, C., & Suzuki, K. (2023) · Health Promotion International · doi:10.1093/heapro/daac200 · Cited by 7
Shafighi, A. H., Atashzadeh‐Shoorideh, F., Ebadi, A., & Ghadirian, F. (2023) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-023-04762-4 · Cited by 5
“Disorders such as anxiety, depression, sleep disturbances, and obsessive behaviors have been observed in COVID-19 recovered individuals [7, 8].”
Sun, H., Zhang, S., Jiang, Y., Nie, X., Kuang, M., & Liu, Z. (2025) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su17062631 · Cited by 5
Did COVID-19 early lockdown actually lead to a higher rate of relapses in psychiatric patients?
Rosso, G., Teobaldi, E., & Maina, G. (2020) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113204 · Cited by 5
“The authors observed a negative psychological impact on psychiatric patients during the COVID-19 epidemic (Hao et al., 2020).”
Qiu, X., Lan, Y., Miao, J., Wang, H., Wang, H., Wu, J., Guo, L., Zhao, X., Cao, Z., Mei, J., et al. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.701032 · Cited by 5
“Notably, the strict lockdown measures had a negative psychological impact on psychiatric patients during the COVID-19 pandemic (46).”
Self-citationKuljančić, D. (2021) · Electronic Journal of General Medicine · doi:10.29333/ejgm/11399 · Cited by 5
“A study by Chinese authors, on the other hand, notes that a significant number of psychiatric patients stopped using psychopharmaceuticals during the epidemic, because it was not possible to obtain them through a doctor’s prescription [11].”
Ma, M., Wang, X., Qi, P., & Wang, T. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.822908 · Cited by 5
“A recent study confirmed the severely negative psychological impact on psychiatric patients due to the strict lockdown measures (15).”
Levaj, S., Medved, S., Grubišin, J., Tomašić, L., Brozić, K., Shields‐Zeeman, L., Bolinski, F., & Kuzman, M. R. (2022) · International Journal of Social Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/00207640221130966 · Cited by 5
“High social support can provide an explanation for relatively common mental health outcomes of our sample, that is not worse when comparing our results to aforementioned other similar researches on general population (Hao et al., 2020; Mautong et al., 2021; Salari et al., 2020), despite significant exogenous stressors…”
Mental Healthcare in the ‘New Normal’: Digital Technologies for Pandemics
Clough, B. A., Cassimatis, M., Noorbala, L., Attary, T., Ghazizadeh, A., & Hamilton, K. (2022) · Springer series on bio- and neurosystems · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-10031-4_20 · Cited by 5
Baleige, A., Daumerie, N., & Defromont, L. (2020) · Health Services Insights · doi:10.1177/1178632920954876 · Cited by 5
Zarządzanie w opiece zdrowotnej w czasie COVID-19
Dobska, M. (2021) · doi:10.18559/978-83-8211-078-4 · Cited by 5
Impact of COVID-19 pandemic on mental health across different populations
MUKHERJEE, K., BANIK, S., & CHAKRABORTY, N. (2021) · Minerva Psychiatry · doi:10.23736/s2724-6612.21.02172-2 · Cited by 5
Risk Perception among Psychiatric Patients during the COVID-19 Pandemic
Natale, A., Concerto, C., Rodolico, A., Birgillito, A., Bonelli, M., Martinez, M., Signorelli, M. S., Petralia, A., Infortuna, C., Battaglia, F., et al. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19052620 · Cited by 5
“Overall, data indicate that psychiatric patients are severely affected by the epidemic [32] and that the assessment of their concerns regarding the contagion are of pivotal importance for optimizing preventive patient ‘care.”
Domínguez, C., Arranz, E. M., Rodríguez, B. F., Joral, E. C., & Díez, Á. (2021) · Revista de Psiquiatría Infanto-Juvenil · doi:10.31766/revpsij.v38n1a3 · Cited by 5
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“A considerable amount of research has begun to accumulate conveying the detrimental effects of Covid-19 on the psychological health of individuals with existing psychiatric diagnoses (Hao et al., 2020; Iasevoli et al., 2021; Muruganandam et al., 2020).”
Kim, D.-S., Song, H. S., Lee, K.-M., Lee, J. G., Yun, S., Lim, J., Heo, N. H., Kim, J. S., Cho, N., Park, S., et al. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-70986-3 · Cited by 5
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“Vulnerable psychiatric populations are especially susceptible to the effects of lockdowns and quarantines, as was demonstrated both in prior epidemics (Brooks et al., 2020) and in the current one (Hao, 2020).”
Priori, A., Bai, F., Rovito, R., Marchetti, G. C., Monforte, A. D., Papa, G. F. S., Pellegrino, G. M., Centanni, S., Chiumello, D., Bonifazi, M., et al. (2021) · doi:10.54103/milanoup.57 · Cited by 5
Prabhat, A., Kumar, A., & Bhardwaj, S. K. (2022) · Sleep and Vigilance · doi:10.1007/s41782-022-00200-9 · Cited by 5
COVID-19 Pandemic: 1-Year Follow-Up in Children and Adolescents with Neuropsychiatric Disorders
Pastorino, G. M. G., Marino, M., Aiello, S., D’Auria, R., Meccariello, R., Santoro, A., Viggiano, A., & Operto, F. F. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20053924 · Cited by 4
“Psychiatric patients showed greater levels of PTSD, depression, anxiety, stress, insomnia, concerns about their physical health, anger and irritability, and suicidal ideation compared to controls [9].”
Garcés-Prettel, M., Castro, E. R. G., Gutiérrez-Ruiz, K., & Santoya-Montes, Y. (2023) · Revista de Salud Pública · doi:10.15446/rsap.v25n2.105378 · Cited by 4
“It has been warned in this pandemic context that people with psychiatric disorders could experience a worsening of symptoms and others could develop new mental health problems (4,8).”
Lee, H., Kennedy, C. J., Tu, A., Restivo, J. L., Liu, C. H., Naslund, J. A., Patel, V., Choi, K. W., & Smoller, J. W. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0303079 · Cited by 4
Jahan, Y., Khair, Z., Moriyama, M., Amin, M. R., Hawlader, M. D. H., Ananta, T. T., Aziz, A. B., Sharif, M., Hasan, M., Chowdhury, M. F. I., et al. (2024) · Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care · doi:10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_1608_23 · Cited by 4
Funayama, M., Kurose, S., Kudo, S., Shimizu, Y., & Takata, T. (2020) · Asian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.ajp.2020.102239 · Cited by 4
“…even though psychiatric patients are experiencing more psychiatric symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic and lockdown than healthy control subjects (Hao et al., 2020). r o Similar circumstances were also seen in Italy, where a marked reduction in psychiatric admission rates was recorded. e This…”
İzolasyon ve karantinanın ruh sağlığı üzerine etkileri
Aslan, E., & Türkili, S. (2021) · Mersin üniversitesi sağlık bilimleri dergisi/Mersin üniversitesi sağlık bilimleri dergisi · doi:10.26559/mersinsbd.868398 · Cited by 5
de Souza, M. L. P., Barbosa, E. D. C., Rocha, D. Q. D. C., & Herkrath, F. J. (2021) · Jornal Brasileiro de Psiquiatria · doi:10.1590/0047-2085000000307 · Cited by 4
The Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on Suicidal Behavior
Hocaoğlu, Ç. (2021) · IntechOpen eBooks · doi:10.5772/intechopen.97663 · Cited by 4
Güre, M. D. P., Karataş, M., & Duyan, V. (2021) · Asia Pacific Journal of Social Work and Development · doi:10.1080/02185385.2021.1935310 · Cited by 4
Covid-19 pandemic has increased the incidence of self-inflicted burn injuries
Marques, R. R., de Almeida, C. E. D., Coltro, P. S., Santos, L. A. F., VECCI, T. R. D. S., & Farina, J. A. (2021) · Burns · doi:10.1016/j.burns.2021.06.009 · Cited by 4
“A burn mass casualty incident defined by the American Burn Association (ABA) as “any catastrophic event in which the number of burn victims exceeds the capacity of the local burn center to provide optimal burn care” [1].”
InfluentialCoronavirus disease 2019 pandemic and anxiety: a longitudinal study in 287 Brazilians
de Souza, A. C. M., Manoel, A. Z., Manoel, P. Z., Weiler, R. A., Kimura, R. N. Y., & Skare, T. L. (2021) · Revista da Associação Médica Brasileira · doi:10.1590/1806-9282.20200881 · Cited by 4
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“Some of the reasons for the decline in mental health may be due to delays in the delivery of psychotropic medications, a lack of access to primary care or outpatient clinics, increased financial difficulty, personal concern about contracting COVID-19, spending a long period of time at home, and decreased living condit…”
Klasa, K., Sobański, J. A., Konop, M. A., Dembińska, E., Mielimąka, M., Citkowska-Kisielewska, A., Jęda, P., Pelc, M., & Rutkowski, K. (2022) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2022.110786 · Cited by 4
Metadata
- Authors
- Hao, F., Tan, W., Jiang, L., Zhang, L., Zhao, X., Zou, Y., Hu, Y., Luo, X., Jiang, X., McIntyre, R. S., Tran, B., Sun, J., Zhang, Z., Ho, R., Ho, C., & Tam, W.
- Affiliations
- First People's Hospital of Chongqing (CN)
- National University of Singapore (SG)
- Army Medical University (CN)
- University Health Network (CA)
- Johns Hopkins University (US)
- Huaibei Normal University (CN)
- National University Health System (SG)
- Corresponding author
- Ho, Roger
- ORCID
- Venue
- Brain, Behavior, and Immunity
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2020-07
- Volume
- 87
- Pages
- 100-106
- ISSN
- 0889-1591 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7184991
- OpenAlex
- W3020448761
- Cited by
- 968
- References
- 43
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 27 · 2024: 65 · 2023: 107 · 2022: 257 · 2021: 332 · 2020: 171
- FWCI
- 86.61
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Brain Behavior and Immunity (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Rare & Special e-Zone (The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Vingroup Innovation Foundation
- National University of Singapore (VINIF.2020.Covid19.DA07, R-722-000-004-731)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Keywords
- COVID-19 pandemic, lockdown, psychiatric patients, psychiatric symptoms, post-traumatic stress disorder, insomnia, depression, anxiety, stress, suicidal ideation, immunopsychiatry, physical health status, inflammatory cytokines
- MeSH terms
- Betacoronavirus, COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, Adult, Anxiety, Anxiety Disorders, Mental Disorders, China, Depression, Female, Health Status, Humans, Sleep Initiation and Maintenance Disorders, Male, Middle Aged, Pneumonia, Viral, Psychoneuroimmunology, Surveys and Questionnaires, Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic, Stress, Psychological, Case-Control Studies, Coronavirus, Coronavirus Infections, Pandemics
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