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It's the Thought That Counts: Examining the Task-dependent Effects of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation on Executive Function
Open accessAbstract
Background Prior investigations employing transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) have shown that stimulation can elicit subsequent improvement on tests of various cognitive abilities, including working memory. While stimulation parameters such as intensity and duration are known to determine the effects of tDCS, the degree to which stimulation effects are influenced by the nature of cognitive activities during stimulation remains unclear. Objective/hypothesis To determine whether manipulating the working memory load of a task performed during stimulation would modulate tDCS-induced enhancement of performance on a different, related measure after stimulation. Methods In two separate but closely related sham-controlled experiments, two groups of healthy subjects underwent anodal tDCS (2 mA) of the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) for 20 min. In Experiment 1, subjects (n = 11) trained on a letter 3Back task during stimulation. In Experiment 2 subjects (n = 11) trained on a letter 1Back task, which resembled the 3Back task but featured a lower working memory load. In both experiments, before and after stimulation, subjects completed an adjusting Paced Auditory Serial Addition Task (A-PASAT). Both the experimenter and subjects were blind to stimulation conditions in both experiments. Results Subjects were both faster and more accurate on the A-PASAT task after receiving real tDCS paired with 3Back training (Experiment1) compared to sham+3Back, real+1Back, and sh…
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“Cognitive training task difficulty may also impact the efficacy of tDCS, as behavioral improvements occur specifically when stimulation is paired with higher demanding tasks [67].”
From Primary outcome from the augmenting cognitive training in older adults study (ACT): A tDCS and cognitive training randomized clinical trial (2023) · cites this paper as [67]
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“Numerous studies have paired tDCS with specific cognitive or behavioral tasks [5,11,12], operating under the assumption that a complementary or additive relationship exists between stimulation and task rehearsal.”
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“While these stimulation parameters can serve as a rule of thumb for tDCS of other areas, participant groups, and experimental conditions, a one-to-one transferability of effects found in studies of motor cortices cannot be taken for granted due to state-dependency of tDCS effects, anatomical differences, and other fac…”
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Self-citationState-dependent effects of neural stimulation on brain function and cognition
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“…patterns by strengthening or weakening these patterns via Heb-bian synaptic mechanisms of neuroplasticity (Jackson et al., 2016; Kronberg et al., 2020; Reato et al., 2013), in which patterns of ongoing neural activity are selectively modulated and reinforced by stimulation (Gill et al., 2015).”
BackgroundSelf-citationMechanisms and Effects of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation
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“For cognitive functions, recent evidence also suggests that the task one is engaged in during tDCS significantly impacts the effects of stimulation.(50) To a first degree of approximation, these parameters align conceptually with known cellular and interneuronal mechanisms of tDCS.”
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“Performing a task during stimulation may alter the stimulation effects on related tasks post-stimulation (Gill et al., 2015; Ruf et al., 2017).”
Enhancing Working Memory Training with Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation
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Self-citationChoy, O., Raine, A., & Hamilton, R. H. (2018) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.3317-17.2018 · Cited by 122
“The tasks performed during tDCS 141 are understood to influence the behavioral after-effects of stimulation (Gill et al., 2015).”
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“This would be consistent with the idea that with cognitively-demanding tasks the effects of anodal tDCS are larger [55].”
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Improving interference control in ADHD patients with transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS)
Breitling, C., Zaehle, T., Dannhauer, M., Bonath, B., Tegelbeckers, J., Flechtner, H.-H., & Krauel, K. (2016) · Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fncel.2016.00072 · Cited by 98
“Gill et al. (2015) found anodal tDCS effects when stimulating during high but not during low working memory load.”
BackgroundCognitive Effects of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation in Healthy and Clinical Populations
Berryhill, M. E., & Martin, D. M. (2018) · Journal of Ect · doi:10.1097/yct.0000000000000534 · Cited by 95
Price, A. R., McAdams, H. M., Grossman, M., & Hamilton, R. H. (2015) · Brain stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2015.06.013 · Cited by 86
“Previous work has suggested that the size of the effect from tDCS is influenced by the duration and intensity of stimulation [1,2,22,23], as well as whether or not stimulation is coupled with behavioral training [24,49].”
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“Multimodal interventions combining CI and PE (Kraft, 2012; Linde and Alfermann, 2013) or CI and NIBS (Bentwich et al., 2011; Cotelli et al., 2014; Gill et al., 2015; Park et al., 2014; Rabey et al., 2013) have recently been shown to lead to greater cognitive improvements than the separate…”
McConathey, E. M., White, N. C., Gervits, F., Ash, S., Coslett, H. B., Grossman, M., & Hamilton, R. H. (2017) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2017.00347 · Cited by 82
“Evidence indicates that cognitive activities pursued during stimulation can strongly influence the kinds of performance changes induced by stimulation (Andrews et al., 2011; Gill et al., 2015).”
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Self-citationNissim, N., Moberg, P., & Hamilton, R. (2020) · Brain Science · doi:10.3390/brainsci10090597 · Cited by 75
“Across a variety of cognitive domains, studies assessing tDCS [37,38] and TMS [39] have shown that the targeted brain system benefits most from stimulation when that system is being engaged by a relevant behavioral task during or near the time of stimulation [40].”
BackgroundSelf-citationWischnewski, M., Mantell, K. E., & Opitz, A. (2021) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.08.017 · Cited by 78
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“There is evidence that engaging people in cognitive tasks that call upon the brain regions and networks that one wishes to enhance with tDCS results in selective modulation of those networks by stimulation (Gill et al., 2014).”
BackgroundSelf-citationTranscranial Direct Current Brain Stimulation Increases Ability to Resist Smoking
Falcone, M., Bernardo, L., Ashare, R. L., Hamilton, R. H., Faseyitan, O. K., McKee, S. A., Loughead, J., & Lerman, C. E. (2015) · Brain stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2015.10.004 · Cited by 83
“, working memory is enhanced when tDCS is co-administered with a working memory task such as the n-back; [43, 44]).”
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Transcranial random noise stimulation mitigates increased difficulty in an arithmetic learning task
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“On the other hand, calculation strategies during mental arithmetic have been shown to recruit the bilateral intraparietal sulci (Delazer et al., 2003; Stanescu-Cosson et al., 2000) as well as frontal regions such as the middle and inferior frontal gyri (Delazer et al., 2005; Pesenti et al., 2001).”
InfluentialTalsma, L. J., Kroese, H. A., & Slagter, H. A. (2016) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_01077 · Cited by 78
“sham) tDCS to lDLPFC only improved poststimulation performance on an attention task when combined with a challenging 3-back but not an easy 1-backverbal WM task (Gill et al., 2015).”
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Effects of non-invasive brain stimulation on associative memory
Matzen, L. E., Trumbo, M., Leach, R. C., & Leshikar, E. D. (2015) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2015.07.036 · Cited by 71
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“This is an especially pertinent source of variability as recent research has demonstrated that tDCS effects are highly state dependent (Elmasry et al., 2015; Gill et al., 2015; Dedoncker et al., 2016), suggesting that the combination of a task with stimulation might yield greater modulation of cognitive domains.”
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“The decision to exclude the online takes was done a priori based on work by Gill et al. (2015) which reports that effects of offline tDCS are enhanced when the online and offline tasks require the same cognitive processes.”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationFrontoparietal tDCS Benefits Visual Working Memory in Older Adults With Low Working Memory Capacity
Arciniega, H., Gözenman, F., Jones, K. T., Stephens, J. A., & Berryhill, M. E. (2018) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2018.00057 · Cited by 62
“Studies in other cognitive domains have also found that multiple sessions extend benefits on executive functions (Gill et al., 2015; Au et al., 2016), language (Cotelli et al., 2014), and VWM performance in patient populations (Park et al., 2003; Jo et al., 2009; Park and Gooding, 2014; Wu et al.,…”
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“Gill and colleagues (Gill et al., 2015) pointed out that the outcomes of stimulation are influenced by the nature of the cognitive activity elicited by the task applied.”
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“One emphasizes the dependency of tDCS effects on task demands (Dedoncker et al., 2016; Gill et al., 2015; Stephens et al., 2017) in combination with inherent inter-individual variability, re fl ected in terms of “ baseline ” cognitive capacity, education, and cognitive reserve (Arciniega et al.,…”
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Effects of single-session transcranial direct current stimulation on reactive response inhibition
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“For example, when applying offline protocols, being at rest or engaged in a task may impact the stimulation effect (Bikson and Rahman, 2013; Gill et al., 2015; Horvath et al., 2014; Hsu et al., 2011).”
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Does non-invasive brain stimulation modulate emotional stress reactivity?
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tDCS-Induced Effects on Executive Functioning and Their Cognitive Mechanisms: a Review
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Polarity-specific transcranial direct current stimulation disrupts auditory pitch learning
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“This difference in timing of tDCS application seems to be crucial according to previous studies that showed that only concurrent application of tDCS and task enhanced task learning or increased cortical excitability (Stagg et al., 2011; Antal et al., 2014; Gill et al., 2014; Reis et al., 2015).”
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“This is consistent with previous findings of near transfer [29, 33, 85, 116, 117].”
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Effects of HD-tDCS on memory and metamemory for general knowledge questions that vary by difficulty
Chua, E. F., Ahmed, R., & Garcia, S. M. (2016) · Brain stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2016.10.013 · Cited by 44
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“As the most advanced part of brain development, the prefrontal lobe has attracted a large number of related studies including the executive function located in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) [1]; emotional symptoms located in the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (VLPFC) [2]; selective attention located in t…”
BackgroundMethodAnodal tDCS augments and preserves working memory beyond time-on-task deficits
Karthikeyan, R., Smoot, M. R., & Mehta, R. K. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-98636-y · Cited by 37
Longitudinal tDCS: Consistency across Working Memory Training Studies
Berryhill, M. E. (2017) · AIMS neuroscience · doi:10.3934/neuroscience.2017.2.71 · Cited by 35
“The combination of cognitive task [86] and tDCS likely strengthens task-relevant networks via some form of LTP-like neuroplastic change [87] particularly in task-relevant networks [8,11], and especially when it is applied ‗online‘, meaning concurrently with, the task, rather than ‗offline‘ or after…”
Assecondi, S., Hu, R., Eskes, G. A., Pan, X., Zhou, J., & Shapiro, K. L. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-84298-3 · Cited by 36
The effects of direct current stimulation and random noise stimulation on attention networks
Lema, A., Carvalho, S., Fregni, F., Gonçalves, Ó. F., & Leite, J. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-85749-7 · Cited by 40
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“We have previously observed in healthy subjects that the degree to which a cognitive training task engages particular mental abilities during tDCS directly influences the extent to which performance on tasks that require similar abilities are affected by stimulation (Gill et al., 2015).”
BackgroundSelf-citationLeite, J., Gonçalves, Ó. F., Pereira, P., Khadka, N., Bikson, M., Fregni, F., & Carvalho, S. (2017) · Neuroscience Research · doi:10.1016/j.neures.2017.08.005 · Cited by 34
“This specificity f tDCS has been shown extensively in the literature, and is thought o be dependent on the activated network, the extension of its actiation, its resting state, or the level of cognitive demands (Carvalho t al., 2015; Ehlis et al., 2016; Gill et al., 2015; Hsu et al., 2016).”
Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation
Kenney‐Jung, D. L., Blacker, C. J., Camsari, D. D., Lee, J. C., & Lewis, C. P. (2018) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.chc.2018.07.008 · Cited by 34
Wang, Y., Wang, J., Zhang, Q., Xiao, K.-W., Wang, L., Yu, Q.-P., Xie, Q., Poo, M., & Wen, Y. (2022) · Neuroscience Bulletin · doi:10.1007/s12264-022-00901-1 · Cited by 34
“enhanced cognition or motor learning [55-58] and these effects were specific to different level of task difficulty [59, 60] or the site of tDCS [58, 61].”
BackgroundDirect current stimulation of prefrontal cortex modulates error‐induced behavioral adjustments
Mansouri, F. A., Fehring, D. J., Feizpour, A., Gaillard, A., Rosa, M. G. P., Rajan, R., & Jaberzadeh, S. (2016) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/ejn.13281 · Cited by 37
“ous studies have shown that the effects of tDCS over parietal cortex (Jones & Berryhill, 2012) or over the DLPFC (Gill et al., 2015) were related to the difficulty of the cognitive tasks.”
BackgroundSchroeder, P. A., Dresler, T., Bahnmueller, J., Artemenko, C., Kadosh, R. C., & Nuerk, H. (2017) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-016-0006-z · Cited by 36
“activity (state dependency) and on neural activations as induced by a task (Silvanto and Pascual-Leone 2008; Bikson and Rahman 2013; Gill et al. 2015).”
BackgroundQi, F., Nitsche, M. A., Ren, X., Wang, D., & Wang, L. (2023) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2023.1156987 · Cited by 32
Action at a distance on object-related ventral temporal representations
Lee, D., Mahon, B. Z., & Almeida, J. (2019) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2019.02.018 · Cited by 30
Moseley, P., Alderson‐Day, B., Ellison, A., Jardri, R., & Fernyhough, C. (2016) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2015.00515 · Cited by 31
“…it is possible to demonstrate a neutralization of the effect of anodal tDCS over left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in executive function (Gill et al., 2015), and for complex tasks, it is not uncommon to have similar behavioral effects manifested by both anodal and cathodal tDCS albeit…”
BackgroundGalletta, E. E., Conner, P. S., Vogel-Eyny, A., & Marangolo, P. (2016) · American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.1044/2016_ajslp-15-0133 · Cited by 30
Mammarella, N., Domenico, A. D., Palumbo, R., & Fairfield, B. (2016) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2016.11.005 · Cited by 32
“This finding is also in line with previous studies suggesting that behavioral effects elicited from stimulation can be greater under conditions that are more cognitively demanding (Gill et al., 2014).”
Cucca, A., Sharma, K., Agarwal, S., Feigin, A., & Biagioni, M. C. (2019) · Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1186/s12984-019-0481-4 · Cited by 31
“The principal mechanism of action of tDCS is a subthreshold modulation of neuronal membrane potentials, thus modulating spontaneous neuronal firing activity depending on the previous physiological state of the brain target area [19, 20].”
Nathou, C., Etard, O., & Dollfus, S. (2019) · Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment · doi:10.2147/ndt.s168801 · Cited by 28
“enlights that tDCS may be more effective when delivered twice daily or more than 10 sessions(47) and when is associated with a relevant task.(103) This observation could motivate future studies that implement tDCS with a task or during active AVH.”
BackgroundNeuropsychological functioning in child sexual abusers: A systematic review
Turner, D., & Rettenberger, M. (2020) · Aggression and Violent Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.avb.2020.101405 · Cited by 27
Pergolizzi, D., & Chua, E. F. (2016) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2016.06.009 · Cited by 28
Smits, F., Geuze, E., Schutter, D. J. L. G., van Honk, J., & Gladwin, T. E. (2021) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291721000817 · Cited by 26
Oveisgharan, S., Organji, H., & Ghorbani, A. (2017) · Journal of Stroke and Cerebrovascular Diseases · doi:10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2017.08.026 · Cited by 24
Nissim, N. R., Harvey, D. Y., Haslam, C., Friedman, L., Bharne, P., Litz, G. A., Phillips, J. S., Cousins, K. A. Q., Xie, S. X., Grossman, M., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2022.907425 · Cited by 25
Self-citationHurley, R., & Machado, L. (2018) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803395.2018.1434133 · Cited by 25
“More encouragingly, Gill, ShahBasak, and Hamilton (2015) showed that engaging in a 3-back, but not a 1-back, task during AtDCS improved poststimulation WM performance relative to a sham condition (StDCS + 3-back).”
BackgroundInfluentialTargeted neurorehabilitation strategies in post-stroke aphasia
Shah‐Basak, P. P., Boukrina, O. V., Li, X. R., Jebahi, F., & Kielar, A. (2023) · Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience · doi:10.3233/rnn-231344 · Cited by 29
Self-citationGhanavati, E., Nejati, V., & Salehinejad, M. A. (2017) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-017-0059-7 · Cited by 24
“…and Vanderhasselt 2014; Javadi and Walsh 2012; Salehinejad et al. 2017a), attention (Coffman et al. 2014; Gladwin et al. 2012), executive functions (Gill et al. 2015; Nejati et al. 2017a; Nejati et al. 2017b), inhibitory control (Hsu et al. 2011; Salehinejad et al. 2017b), social cognition (Nejati…”
BackgroundKaruza, E. A., Balewski, Z. Z., Hamilton, R. H., Medaglia, J. D., Tardiff, N., & Thompson‐Schill, S. L. (2016) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2016.00665 · Cited by 22
“…(e.g., Nozari et al., 2014), duration of stimulation (e.g., Nitsche and Paulus, 2001), cognitive demand involved in task (e.g., Antal et al., 2007; Gill et al., 2015), skull thickness and subcutaneous fat content (Datta et al., 2012), and a genetic polymorphism associated with prefrontal dopamine…”
BackgroundSelf-citationAlmeida, J., Martins, A. R., Bergström, F., Amaral, L., Freixo, A., Ganho-Ávila, A., Kristensen, S., Lee, D., Nogueira, J., & Ruttorf, M. (2017) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2017.07.001 · Cited by 21
Eilam‐Stock, T., George, A., & Charvet, L. E. (2020) · Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology · doi:10.1093/arclin/acaa059 · Cited by 25
Transcranial direct current stimulation: considerations for research in adolescent depression
Lee, J. C., Lewis, C. P., Daskalakis, Z. J., & Croarkin, P. E. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00091 · Cited by 22
“Such task-specific effects are not limited to concurrent motor activities; the degree of cognitive demand of an executive functioning task during stimulation affected performance (70).”
BackgroundAlonzo, A., Aaronson, S. T., Bikson, M., Husain, M. M., Lisanby, S. H., Martin, D. M., McClintock, S. M., McDonald, W. M., O’Reardon, J. P., Esmailpoor, Z., et al. (2016) · Contemporary Clinical Trials · doi:10.1016/j.cct.2016.10.002 · Cited by 22
Transcranial direct current stimulation can enhance working memory in Huntington's disease
Eddy, C. M., Shapiro, K. L., Clouter, A., Hansen, P., & Rickards, H. E. (2017) · Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2017.04.002 · Cited by 24
“Pairing tDCS with tasks may result in selective alterations in brain activity, and this is likely to depend on the extent to which the adjunctive tasks engage the targeted cognitive skill and related brain networks (Gill et al., 2015).”
BackgroundPrefrontal neuromodulation reverses spatial associations of non-numerical sequences, but not numbers
Schroeder, P. A., Nuerk, H., & Plewnia, C. (2017) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2017.07.008 · Cited by 22
“Thus, given that sequence information is here available to somewhat smaller extents, this task variant tested the possibility of subthreshold detection modulations (Schroeder et al., 2016) as opposed to the state dependency principle of tDCS (Gill et al., 2015; Zwissler et al., 2014).”
Boroda, E., Krueger, A. M., Bansal, P., Schumacher, M. J., Roy, A. V., Boys, C. J., Lim, K. O., & Wozniak, J. R. (2020) · Brain stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2020.04.015 · Cited by 21
High-Definition tDCS of Noun and Verb Retrieval in Naming and Lexical Decision
Александровна, М. С., & den Ouden, D. (2015) · NeuroRegulation · doi:10.15540/nr.2.3.111 · Cited by 21
Metadata
- Authors
- Gill, J., Shah-Basak, P. P., & Hamilton, R.
- Affiliations
- University of Pennsylvania (US)
- Corresponding author
- Hamilton, Roy
- Venue
- Brain Stimulation
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2015-03
- Volume
- 8
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 253-259
- ISSN
- 1876-4754 (ISSN-L)
- 1935-861X
- OpenAlex
- W2047762347
- Cited by
- 224
- References
- 30
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 12 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 26 · 2020: 23 · 2019: 21 · 2018: 21 · 2017: 27 · 2016: 33 · 2015: 10
- FWCI
- 12.33
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- doaj.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Brain stimulation (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- University of Pennsylvania – Center for Undergraduate Research for funding this research
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Studies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Keywords
- transcranial direct current stimulation, executive function, working memory load, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, anodal tDCS, Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test, 3-back task, non-invasive brain stimulation
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Double-Blind Method, Female, Humans, Male, Memory, Short-Term, Psychomotor Performance, Prefrontal Cortex, Young Adult, Executive Function, Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation
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