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Analytic thinking reduces belief in conspiracy theories
Open accessAbstract
Belief in conspiracy theories has been associated with a range of negative health, civic, and social outcomes, requiring reliable methods of reducing such belief. Thinking dispositions have been highlighted as one possible factor associated with belief in conspiracy theories, but actual relationships have only been infrequently studied. In Study 1, we examined associations between belief in conspiracy theories and a range of measures of thinking dispositions in a British sample (N=990). Results indicated that a stronger belief in conspiracy theories was significantly associated with lower analytic thinking and open-mindedness and greater intuitive thinking. In Studies 2-4, we examined the causational role played by analytic thinking in relation to conspiracist ideation. In Study 2 (N=112), we showed that a verbal fluency task that elicited analytic thinking reduced belief in conspiracy theories. In Study 3 (N=189), we found that an alternative method of eliciting analytic thinking, which related to cognitive disfluency, was effective at reducing conspiracist ideation in a student sample. In Study 4, we replicated the results of Study 3 among a general population sample (N=140) in relation to generic conspiracist ideation and belief in conspiracy theories about the July 7, 2005, bombings in London. Our results highlight the potential utility of supporting attempts to promote analytic thinking as a means of countering the widespread acceptance of conspiracy theories.
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“Conspiracy belief is correlated with lower levels of analytic thinking (Swami, Voracek, Stieger, Tran, & Furnham, 2014)”
From The Psychology of Conspiracy Theories (2017) · cites this paper as Swami, Voracek, Stieger, Tran, & Furnham, 2014
In the citing paper
“Recent research has linked individual differences in analytic thinking with skepticism about various epistemically suspect information, such as fake news (Pennycook & Rand, 2019;2020), religious and paranormal beliefs (Pennycook et al., 2016;Shenhav et al., 2012), conspiracy theories (Swami et al., 2014), and pseudo-profound bullshit (Pennycook et al., 2015;Pennycook & Rand, 2020).”
From The detection of political deepfakes (2022) · cites this paper as Swami et al., 2014
In the citing paper
“This result extends prior research that associated analytic thinking with higher scrutiny towards other post-truth phenomena, such as fake news (Pennycook & Rand, 2019, 2020) and conspiracy theories (Swami et al., 2014).”
From The detection of political deepfakes (2022) · cites this paper as Swami et al., 2014
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Thinking Style and Paranormal Belief: The Role of Cognitive Biases
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Mancosu, M., & Vegetti, F. (2020) · Social science computer review · doi:10.1177/0894439320965107 · Cited by 33
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BackgroundIles, I. A., Gillman, A. S., Platter, H. N., Ferrer, R. A., & Klein, W. M. P. (2021) · Science Communication · doi:10.1177/10755470211048480 · Cited by 32
Both a bioweapon and a hoax: the curious case of contradictory conspiracy theories about COVID-19
Petrović, M., & Žeželj, I. (2021) · Thinking & Reasoning · doi:10.1080/13546783.2022.2088618 · Cited by 23
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Kelley, N. J., Hurley-Wallace, A. L., Warner, K. L., & Hanoch, Y. (2023) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2022.107648 · Cited by 42
Exploring hate speech dynamics: The emotional, linguistic, and thematic impact on social media users
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Psychometric assessments of Persian translations of three measures of conspiracist beliefs
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“Specifically, conspiracy beliefs are correlated with lower levels of analytic thinking [8, 10] and lower levels of education [13] [14] .”
BackgroundThe Development and Validation of the Epistemic Vice Scale
Meyer, M., Alfano, M., & de Bruin, B. (2021) · Review of Philosophy and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s13164-021-00562-5 · Cited by 31
“The cognitive reflection test has also been shown to be associated with susceptibility to fake news (Pennycook & Rand, 2019, 2020) and conspiracist thinking (Swami et al., 2014).”
Luo, X., & Jia, H. (2021) · Chinese Journal of Communication · doi:10.1080/17544750.2021.1954963 · Cited by 29
“Scientific literacy also includes analytical thinking, which has been found to be associated with weaker conspiracy beliefs or their consequences (Miku skov a, 2018; Swami et al., 2014).”
BackgroundA call to action for librarians: Countering conspiracy theories in the age of QAnon
Beene, S., & Greer, K. (2021) · The Journal of Academic Librarianship · doi:10.1016/j.acalib.2020.102292 · Cited by 28
Conspiracy-Beliefs and Receptivity to Disconfirmatory Information: A Study Using the BADE Task
Georgiou, N., Delfabbro, P., & Balzan, R. P. (2021) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/21582440211006131 · Cited by 27
Petrović, M., & Žeželj, I. (2021) · European Journal of Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1027/1015-5759/a000645 · Cited by 12
Actively open-minded thinking is key to combating fake news: A multimethod study
Mirhoseini, M., Early, S., Shamy, N. E., & Hassanein, K. (2023) · Information & Management · doi:10.1016/j.im.2023.103761 · Cited by 44
A framework for understanding reasoning errors: From fake news to climate change and beyondPreprint
Pennycook, G. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/j3w7d · Cited by 27
Generic Conspiracist Beliefs Scale – Polish adaptation of the method
Siwiak, A., Szpitalak, M., & Polczyk, R. (2023) · Polish Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.24425/ppb.2019.130699 · Cited by 26
Comparative Media Regulation in the United States and Europe
Fukuyama, F., & Grotto, A. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108890960.010 · Cited by 28
Lee, J., Kim, J. W., & Lee, H. Y. (2022) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2022.2031452 · Cited by 31
“Prior research has contended that the extent to which people fall for vaccine conspiracy beliefs is pertinent to experientially intuitive reasoning in addition to other factors such as unpleasant emotions and vaccine refusal (Tomljenovic et al., 2020).”
BackgroundWho falls for fake news? Psychological and clinical profiling evidence of fake news consumers
Escolà‐Gascón, Á., Dagnall, N., Denovan, A., Drinkwater, K. G., & Bosch, M. D. (2022) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2022.111893 · Cited by 34
Petrović, B., Međedović, J., Radović, O. B., & Lovrić, S. R. (2019) · Europe's Journal of Psychology · doi:10.5964/ejop.v15i1.1695 · Cited by 20
Colautti, L., Cancer, A., Magenes, S., Antonietti, A., & Iannello, P. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19031189 · Cited by 26
The vicious cycle of violent intergroup conflicts and conspiracy theories
Hebel‐Sela, S., Hameiri, B., & Halperin, E. (2022) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101422 · Cited by 25
Online Political Advertising in the United States
Fowler, E. F., Franz, M. M., & Ridout, T. N. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108890960.007 · Cited by 26
Antecedent Ideological Profiles and Negative Socio-political Outcomes of LGBTQ+ Conspiracy Beliefs
Salvati, M., Pellegrini, V., Cristofaro, V. D., Costacurta, M., & Giacomantonio, M. (2024) · Sexuality Research & Social Policy · doi:10.1007/s13178-024-00949-w · Cited by 19
“Previous evidence showed that individuals who are more inclined to believe in CTBs are more likely to have a cognitive prejudice called the proportionality bias (Swami et al., 2014).”
Fake News, Voter Overconfidence, and the Quality of Democratic Choice
Kartal, M., & Tyran, J. (2020) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/aer.20201844 · Cited by 24
Skepticism, cynicism, and cognitive style predictors of the generality of unsubstantiated belief
Bensley, D. A., Watkins, C., Lilienfeld, S. O., Masciocchi, C. M., Murtagh, M. P., & Rowan, K. A. (2021) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3900 · Cited by 26
Mancosu, M., & Vassallo, S. (2022) · Italian Political Science Review/Rivista Italiana di Scienza Politica · doi:10.1017/ipo.2021.57 · Cited by 25
“Cognitive capacities are also deemed to be connected with conspiracist ideation: Swami et al .”
Repetition could increase the perceived truth of conspiracy theories
Béna, J., Rihet, M., Carreras, O., & Terrier, P. (2023) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-023-02276-4 · Cited by 32
On the disposition to think analytically: Four distinct intuitive-analytic thinking stylesPreprint
Newton, C., Feeney, J. R., & Pennycook, G. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/r5wez · Cited by 24
Nan, X., Wang, Y., & Thier, K. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/x48qs · Cited by 24
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Dyrendal, A., & Jolley, D. (2020) · Religions · doi:10.3390/rel11100494 · Cited by 17
“Training the “mindware” (Stanovich 2011) required of analytical thinking takes practice, but reduces badly grounded beliefs (Swami et al. 2014), probably reduces prejudice (Jolley et al.”
InfluentialConclusion: The Challenges and Opportunities for Social Media Research
Persily, N., & Tucker, J. A. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108890960.014 · Cited by 24
Wagner-Egger, P., Adam-Troian, J., Cordonier, L., Cafiero, F., & Bronner, G. (2022) · International Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.5334/irsp.556 · Cited by 20
Većkalov, B., Gligorić, V., & Petrović, M. (2024) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2023.104549 · Cited by 14
Frenken, M., & Imhoff, R. (2022) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2022.104383 · Cited by 23
Oliveira, J., Dias, J. A., Correia, R., Pinheiro, R. S. A., Reis, V., Sousa, D., Agostinho, D., Simões, M. A., & Castelo-Branco, M. S. (2024) · JMIR Serious Games · doi:10.2196/53683 · Cited by 21
“…execute [46]; analytical thinking—the ability to solve problems by virtue of understanding logical principles and assessing the evidence [47]; accurate decision-making ability as a complex process that includes making difficult choices, weighing potential risks and rewards, taking…”
BackgroundMapping the Narrative Ecosystem of Conspiracy Theories in Online Anti-vaccination Discussions
Introne, J. E., Korsunska, A., Krsova, L., & Zhang, Z. (2020) · International Conference on Social Media and Society (SMSociety) · doi:10.1145/3400806.3400828 · Cited by 21
“On Natural News we scraped all user-generated discussion threads that were associated with blog posts containing the word “vaccine,” resulting in a set of 85,683 individual posts, spanning roughly six years.”
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“…relating both schizotypy and autistic traits to CT beliefs are consistent with the view that underlying neurologically atypical conditions may make individuals more prone to adopting conspiracy beliefs (Barron et al., 2014; 2018; Ettinger et al., 2015; Georgiou et al., 2019; Swami et al., 2014).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialPfeffer, B., Goreis, A., Reichmann, A., Bauda, I., Klinger, D., Bock, M. M., Plener, P. L., & Kothgassner, O. D. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-022-03625-7 · Cited by 21
“Conspiracy beliefs can be defined as “a subset of false beliefs in which the ultimate chaos of an event is believed to be due to a plot by multiple actors working together with a clear goal in mind, often lawfully and in secret” (Swami et al., 2014, p. 220).”
Young, D. G., Maloney, E. K., Bleakley, A., & Langbaum, J. B. S. (2022) · Journal of Social and Political Psychology · doi:10.5964/jspp.7823 · Cited by 22
“Also related to belief in misinformation is the concept of epistemic beliefs, or beliefs about the origins of knowledge (Garrett & Weeks, 2017; Swami et al., 2014).”
BackgroundResultCritical Thinking, Intelligence, and Unsubstantiated Beliefs: An Integrative Review
Bensley, D. A. (2023) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence11110207 · Cited by 21
“Swami et al. (2014) found that although REI R-A scores were negatively correlated with conspiracy theory belief, NFC scores were not.”
ResultConspiracy theory beliefs in the adolescent population: A systematic review
Byrne, A., Martin, D., Jones, C., Galbraith, N. D., & Mercer, T. (2024) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1002/jad.12316 · Cited by 20
Democracy and belief in conspiracy theories in New Zealand
Marques, M. D., Hill, S., Clarke, E. J. R., Williams, M. N., Ling, M., Kerr, J. R., Douglas, K. M., Cichocka, A. K., & Sibley, C. G. (2022) · Australian Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1080/10361146.2022.2122773 · Cited by 20
Partisan bias in false memories for misinformation about the 2021 U.S. Capitol riot
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“Moreover, stronger belief in conspiracy theories is associated with lower analytic thinking (Swami et al., 2014), which has been linked to greater beliefs in fake news (Pennycook & Rand, 2019) and greater susceptibility to forming false memories of events (Murphy et al., 2019).”
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An agent-based model about the effects of fake news on a norovirus outbreak
Brainard, J. S., Hunter, P. R., & Hall, I. (2020) · Revue d Épidémiologie et de Santé Publique · doi:10.1016/j.respe.2019.12.001 · Cited by 19
“empirical [23, 33, 36-38] and theoretical [38-41] evidence suggests extremely similar ideological and 10”
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Armstrong, T., Rockloff, M., Browne, M., & Blaszczynski, A. P. (2019) · Journal of Gambling Studies · doi:10.1007/s10899-019-09910-8 · Cited by 20
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Both‐Sideology Endangers Democracy and Social Science
Jost, J. T. (2024) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/josi.12633 · Cited by 23
On the relationship between age and conspiracy beliefs
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“Indeed, higher levels of education foster analytical thinking and deliberation, which, in turn, reduce individual adherence to conspiratorial explanations (Bago et al., 2022; Swami et al., 2014).”
Addressing Covid-19 Vaccination Conspiracy Theories and Vaccination Intentions
Pummerer, L., Winter, K., & Sassenberg, K. (2022) · European Journal of Health Communication · doi:10.47368/ejhc.2022.201 · Cited by 19
“There are many studies indicating that people who believe in conspiracy theories are less likely to be reached with rational information (Pytlik et al., 2020; Swami et al., 2014).”
BackgroundResultPummerer, L., Ditrich, L., Winter, K., & Sassenberg, K. (2022) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/19485506221144150 · Cited by 19
“For example, Swami et al. (2014) report three studies showing that people engaging in tasks promoting analytic thinking subsequently reported lower belief in conspiracy theories than people in a control group (see also Bago et al., 2022).”
Sanderson, J. A., Gignac, G. E., & Ecker, U. K. H. (2021) · Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/20445911.2021.1931243 · Cited by 17
“Specifically, lower levels of analytic reasoning, need for cognition, WM capacity, intelligence, and perceptual abilities, as well as greater levels of delusion-proneness and dogmatism have been associated with increased belief in false information (Bronstein et al., 2019; Gerrie & Garry, 2007; Leding & Antonio, 2019;…”
BackgroundThinking dispositions and cognitive reflection performance in schizotypy
Broyd, A., Ettinger, U., & Thoma, V. (2019) · Judgment and Decision Making · doi:10.1017/s193029750000293x · Cited by 18
Do conspiracy theorists think too much or too little?
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“They often show a preference for simple solutions and antipathy toward individuals with competing worldviews (Imhoff et al., 2022), along with a lack of analytical and actively open-minded thinking (Stanovich, West, & Toplak, 2016; Swami et al., 2014).”
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“Processing disfluency is also associated with lower belief in conspiracy theories (Swami et al., 2014).”
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Antecedents of teachers’ professional competencies
Mikušková, E. B., Verešová, M., & Gatial, V. (2023) · Cogent Education · doi:10.1080/2331186x.2023.2286813 · Cited by 22
“Cognitive reflection helps in the development of professional competencies and education (Čavojová & Jurkovič, 2017c; Jursová Zacharová et al., 2019) and prevents cognitive biases, unwarranted beliefs, prejudice and stereotyping (Swami et al., 2014; Trippas et al., 2015).”
Dyrendal, A., & Hestad, K. (2021) · Approaching Religion · doi:10.30664/ar.107485 · Cited by 9
“They are further associated with reliance on intuition rather than rational inquiry to get facts (Swami et al. 2014), with increased tolerance for incoherence, logic al inconsistency, and self-contradictions 100Approaching Religion • Vol. 11, No. 2 • November 2021 (Lewan dowsky et al. 2018), and…”
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COVID-19-related conspiracy theories in China
Wang, X., Zuo, S., Chan, H., Chiu, C. P., & Hong, Y. (2021) · Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology · doi:10.1177/18344909211034928 · Cited by 17
“Despite lacking established evidence, people may still believe in conspiracy theories because such beliefs may appear to provide meaning and explanation in the face of threat and uncertainty (Douglas et al., 2017; Swami et al., 2014).”
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Fighting fake news on social media: a comparative evaluation of digital literacy interventions
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“…a negative predictive role in the acceptance of misinformation and disinformation by motivating individuals to question the sources of information (Lewandowsky et al., 2012) and fostering analytical thinking (Feuerstein, 1999), leading to a decrease in belief in fake news (Swami et al., 2014).”
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Age Differences in Open-Mindedness: From 18 to 87-Years of Age
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Gender Differences and the Five Facets of Conspiracy Theory
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Understanding Conspiracy Online: Social Media and the Spread of Suspicious Thinking
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“Based on the results of Swami et al. (2014) it seems that changes in thinking styles may also be useful to reduce the spread of conspiracy theories.”
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Exploring the Design of Technology-Mediated Nudges for Online Misinformation
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“…in conspiracy theories is mostly associated with a reduced tendency in relying on deliberate analytical information processing and open-minded thinking, all while being related to a stronger disposition towards frugal-intuitive information processing and a need for closure (Swami et al., 2014).”
The Analytic Cognitive Style and Conspiracy Mentality as Predictors of Conspiracy Beliefs
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The socio-psychological predictors of support for post-truth collective action
Mashuri, A., Putra, I. E., Kavanagh, C. M., Zaduqisti, E., Sukmawati, F., Sakdiah, H., & Selviana, S. (2021) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.2021.1935678 · Cited by 16
“A similar path has been found regarding the endorsement of conspiracy theories (Swami et al., 2014), suggesting that lower levels of analytic thinking are one of the underlying features of conspiratorial ideation.”
BackgroundCaycho‐Rodríguez, T., Valencia, P. D., Ventura‐León, J., Vilca, L. W., Carbajal‐León, C., Reyes-Bossio, M. A., White, M., Rojas-Jara, C., Polanco-Carrasco, R., Gallegos, M., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2022.908720 · Cited by 17
Introducing conspiracy intuitions to better understand conspiracy beliefs.
Roberts, R., & Risen, J. L. (2022) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101395 · Cited by 15
Deprived, Radical, Alternatively Informed
Ziegele, M., Resing, M., Frehmann, K., Jackob, N., Jakobs, I., Quiring, O., Schemer, C., Schultz, T., & Viehmann, C. (2022) · European Journal of Health Communication · doi:10.47368/ejhc.2022.205 · Cited by 15
“In fact, studies have demonstrated a negative correlation between analytical European Journal of Health Communication 2022, Vol. 3(2) 97-130 CC BY 4.0 101 thinking and conspiracy belief (Swami et al., 2014).”
BackgroundInfluentialMartire, K. A., Growns, B., Bali, A. S., Montgomery-Farrer, B., Summersby, S., & Younan, M. (2020) · Cognitive Research Principles and Implications · doi:10.1186/s41235-020-00264-z · Cited by 17
Salalι, G. D., & Uysal, M. S. (2021) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2021.07.09.21260228 · Cited by 15
Онлайн-дейтинг: рынок или базар? Процесс поиска брачной пары на православном сайте знакомств
Galitsina, K., Kalinovskaya, P., & Khvorostianova, O. (2022) · Journal of Economic Sociology · doi:10.17323/1726-3247-2022-2-65-90 · Cited by 16
Hongdizi, J., Cui, Y.-X., Zhou, X., & Zhai, H.-K. (2023) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence11020023 · Cited by 21
Thinking false and slow: Implausible beliefs and the Cognitive Reflection Test
Martire, K. A., Robson, S. G., Drew, M., Nicholls, K., & Faasse, K. (2023) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-023-02321-2 · Cited by 18
“Belief in implausible claims therefore may not be best reduced simply by encouraging more analytical thinking, as is sometimes suggested (e.g., Bago et al., 2020; Bronstein et al., 2019; Lewandowsky, 2021; Pennycook et al., 2020; 2021; Pennycook & Rand, 2019; 2020; Swami et al., 2014).”
BackgroundCoronavirus, ‘Plandemic’ and the seven traits of conspiratorial thinking
Cook, J., Lewandowsky, S., Ecker, U. K. H., & van der Linden, S. (2020) · doi:10.64628/aai.njyveyvvt · Cited by 14
The Effect of Analytic Cognitive Style on Credulity
Mikušková, E. B., & Čavojová, V. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.584424 · Cited by 16
Depression, reduced education, and bias perceptions as risk factors of beliefs in misinformation
Delmastro, M., & Paciello, M. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-20640-7 · Cited by 15
Dunning–Kruger effect and flat-earthers: An exploratory analysis
Barrigüete, J. L. A., Núñez-Mera, C. B., Fernández, J. L., & Nicolás, V. L. D. (2023) · Public Understanding of Science · doi:10.1177/09636625231166255 · Cited by 13
Abedin, E., Ferreira, M., Reimann, R., Cheong, M., Grossmann, I., & Alfano, M. (2023) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2023.103979 · Cited by 13
Adamus, M., Mikušková, E. B., Kačmár, P., Guzi, M., Adamkovic, M., Chayinska, M., & Adam‐Troian, J. (2024) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12725 · Cited by 18
“The Big Lie”: How Fact Checking Influences Support for Insurrection
Painter, D. L., & Fernandes, J. (2022) · American Behavioral Scientist · doi:10.1177/00027642221103179 · Cited by 13
“…and partisan identities (Pennycook et al., 2015; Walter et al., 2020), most of the evidence suggests it is positively associated with the accuracy of their beliefs (Gervais & Norenzayan, 2012; Pennycook et al., 2012; Pennycook et al., 2014, 2016; Shenhav et al., 2012; Swami et al., 2014).”
BackgroundCaroti, D., Adam‐Troian, J., & Arciszewski, T. (2022) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3969 · Cited by 14
Kim, S., Stavrova, O., & Vohs, K. D. (2022) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2022.104396 · Cited by 13
“What is more, having supported the winning candidate can positively affect voters' attitudes and beliefs about the government and themselves for years after the election (Loveless, 2020; Toshkov & Mazepus, 2020).”
Lee, T., Johnson, T. J., & Weaver, D. H. (2022) · Mass Communication & Society · doi:10.1080/15205436.2022.2046103 · Cited by 13
“Accordingly, they are likely to hold misperceptions and endorse conspiracy theories (Swami et al., 2014).”
BackgroundCognitive reflection and the coronavirus conspiracy beliefsPreprint
Sadeghiyeh, H., Ahmadi, I. K., Farhadbeigi, P., & Karimi, N. (2020) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/p9wxj · Cited by 13
“I Know Things They Don’t Know!” The Role of Need for Uniqueness in Belief in Conspiracy TheoriesPreprint
Lantian, A., Dominique Muller, B., Nurra, C., & Douglas, K. M. (2017) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/zm9a6 · Cited by 13
Qiu, Y., Yang, Y., Wang, X., & Guo, L. (2025) · Tourism Management · doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2025.105252 · Cited by 12
Metadata
- Authors
- Swami, V., Voracek, M., Stieger, S., Tran, U. S., & Furnham, A.
- Affiliations
- University of Westminster (GB)
- University of Vienna (AT)
- University College London (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Swami, Viren
- Venue
- Cognition
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2014-12
- Volume
- 133
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 572-585
- ISSN
- 0010-0277 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1965444852
- Cited by
- 726
- References
- 105
- Citations by year
- 2026: 49 · 2025: 77 · 2024: 81 · 2023: 71 · 2022: 122 · 2021: 100 · 2020: 94 · 2019: 43 · 2018: 37 · 2017: 23 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 15
- FWCI
- 55.37
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- nbn-resolving.de
- Locations
- Cognition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- WestminsterResearch (University of Westminster) (acceptedVersion)
- KOPS (University of Konstanz) (submittedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Misinformation and Its Impacts
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Paranormal Experiences and Beliefs
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
- Keywords
- conspiracy theories, analytical thinking, conspiracist ideation, intuitive thinking, open-mindedness, verbal fluency
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Culture, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Personality, Thinking, Young Adult
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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