Cited by 726Misinformation and Its ImpactsParanormal Experiences and BeliefsDecision-Making and Behavioral Economics

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Analytic thinking reduces belief in conspiracy theories

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Swami, Viren, Voracek, Martin, Stieger, Stefan, Tran, Ulrich S., Furnham, Adrian·2014·Cognition

DOI 10.1016/j.cognition.2014.08.006

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Abstract

Belief in conspiracy theories has been associated with a range of negative health, civic, and social outcomes, requiring reliable methods of reducing such belief. Thinking dispositions have been highlighted as one possible factor associated with belief in conspiracy theories, but actual relationships have only been infrequently studied. In Study 1, we examined associations between belief in conspiracy theories and a range of measures of thinking dispositions in a British sample (N=990). Results indicated that a stronger belief in conspiracy theories was significantly associated with lower analytic thinking and open-mindedness and greater intuitive thinking. In Studies 2-4, we examined the causational role played by analytic thinking in relation to conspiracist ideation. In Study 2 (N=112), we showed that a verbal fluency task that elicited analytic thinking reduced belief in conspiracy theories. In Study 3 (N=189), we found that an alternative method of eliciting analytic thinking, which related to cognitive disfluency, was effective at reducing conspiracist ideation in a student sample. In Study 4, we replicated the results of Study 3 among a general population sample (N=140) in relation to generic conspiracist ideation and belief in conspiracy theories about the July 7, 2005, bombings in London. Our results highlight the potential utility of supporting attempts to promote analytic thinking as a means of countering the widespread acceptance of conspiracy theories.

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BackgroundResult
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“Nevertheless, anxiety appears to be associated with heightened threat awareness and a greater propensity to interpret ambiguous information and circumstances in a threatening manner [66], which in turn promotes belief in conspiracy theories [67].”
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“…attainment (Guess, Nagler, and Tucker 2019; Scherer et al. 2021), patterns of media consumption (Jamieson and Albarracin 2020), cognitive traits (Pennycook and Rand 2019; Swami et al. 2014), and others–a more thorough review of this literature is available in Nan, Wang, and Thier (2022).”
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Background
Introduction
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BackgroundResult
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Background
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Background
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Background
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“A conspiracy theory (CT) is an unsubstantiated false belief that an event has been caused by a plot developed by a group of people, organizations or countries collaborating toward a specific secret goal (Swami et al., 2014) to deceive people or to keep them in control (Stieger et al., 2013).”
Background
Populism and the Return of the “Paranoid Style”: Some Evidence and a Simple Model of Demand for Incompetence as Insurance against Elite Betrayal
Tella, R. D., & Rotemberg, J. (2016) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w22975 · Cited by 10
Investigating the Links Between Cultural Values and Belief in Conspiracy Theories: The Key Roles of Collectivism and MasculinityPreprint
Adam-Troian, J., Wagner-Egger, P., Motyl, M., Arciszewski, T., Imhoff, R., Zimmer, F., Klein, O., Babińska, M., Bangerter, A., Bilewicz, M., et al. (2020) · Political Psychology · doi:10.31234/osf.io/nzg7x · Cited by 75
“Other lines of investigation show that CTs adherence is lower among individuals with high analytical reasoning and high moral orientation towards epistemic rationality (Swami et al., 2014; Stahl & Van Prooijen, 2018).”
Democracy and belief in conspiracy theories in New ZealandPreprint
Marques, M. D., Hill, S., Clarke, E. J. R., Williams, M. N., Ling, M., Kerr, J. R., Douglas, K. M., Cichocka, A. K., & Sibley, C. G. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/s8qf4 · Cited by 8
Open-mindedness predicts support for public health measures and disbelief in conspiracy theories during the COVID-19 pandemicPreprint
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Celia, G., Lausi, G., Girelli, L., Cavicchiolo, E., Limone, P., Giannini, A. M., & Cozzolino, M. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.939615 · Cited by 7
Science vs. Conspiracy Theory about COVID-19: Need for Cognition and Openness to Experience Increased Belief in Conspiracy-Theoretical Postings on Social Media
Ozimek, P., Nettersheim, M., Rohmann, E., & Bierhoff, H. (2022) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs12110435 · Cited by 6
“According to Swami and colleagues [3], this leads to a preference for quick and easy explanations for uncertainties.”
BackgroundResult
Lay epistemology and the Populist's playbook: The roles of epistemological identity and expressive epistemology.
Young, D., Molokach, B., & Oittinen, E. (2023) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2023.101776 · Cited by 4
Conspiracy Theory Belief: A Sane Response to an Insane World?
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“They don't want you to know the truth”: Evaluating predictors of beliefs in conspiracy theories
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All you'll feel is doom and gloom: Multiple perspectives on the associations between economic anxiety and conspiracy beliefs
Adamus, M., Chayinska, M., Šrol, J., Adam‐Troian, J., Mikušková, E. B., & Teličák, P. (2025) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.70003 · Cited by 8
“Cognitive abilities, in turn, including analytic and scientific thinking, are among the protective factors insulating against the endorsement of CBs (Erlich et al., 2023; Swami et al., 2014).”
Reflection predicts and leads to decreased conspiracy belief
Bayrak, F., Sümer, V., Doğruyol, B., Sarıbay, S. A., Alper, S., İşler, O., & Yılmaz, O. (2025) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2025.106085 · Cited by 9
Reveling in Mayhem: The Need for Chaos in Pandemic Psychology
Alam, R., & Vitriol, J. A. (2025) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/josi.12661 · Cited by 7
Making fiction out of fact
Mason, J. (2019) · Narrative Inquiry · doi:10.1075/ni.19023.mas · Cited by 6
“Swami, Voracek, Stieger, Tran and Furnham also found correlations between conspiracy belief and reduced levels of analytical thinking (Swami et al., 2014).”
Background
Situational Factors Influencing Receptivity to Bullshit
Brown, M., Keefer, L. A., & McGrew, S. J. (2019) · Social Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.32872/spb.v14i3.37393 · Cited by 8
“…thinking ulti‐ mately heightens individuals’ endorsement of scientific findings over other beliefs (e.g., endorsing evolution over creationism; Gervais, 2015) and reduces beliefs in conspiracy theories, an established correlate of bullshit receptivity (Hart & Graether, 2018; Swami et al., 2014).”
Background
Critical Thinking and the Rejection of Unsubstantiated Claims
Bensley, D. A. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108684354.005 · Cited by 9
Psychological Reactance and Beliefs in Conspiracy Theories During the Covid-19 Pandemic: Overview of the Extended Parallel Process Model (EPPM)
Adiwena, B. Y., Satyajati, M. W., & Hapsari, W. (2020) · Buletin Psikologi · doi:10.22146/buletinpsikologi.60212 · Cited by 7
“In conditions of stress, anxiety, and fear, a person tends to be unable to think logically and analytically, thereby increasing the likelihood of believing in conspiracy theories (Swami et al., 2014; Swami et al., 2016).”
Background
Going beyond simplicity: Using machine learning to predict belief in conspiracy theories
Brandenstein, N. (2022) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2859 · Cited by 9
What is wrong with conspiracy beliefs?
Alper, S., & Yılmaz, O. (2023) · Routledge Open Research · doi:10.12688/routledgeopenres.17926.1 · Cited by 7
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“[20] Swami V, Voracek M, Stieger S et al.”
Background
ANXIETY, ILLUSORY PATTERN PERCEPTION AND CONSPIRACY BELIEFS DURING THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC
Spasovski, O., Démuthová, S., & Kuzmanović, V. (2021) · Teorija in praksa · doi:10.51936/tip.58.3.1333-1149 · Cited by 5
“The findings of some studies show that analytical and critical thinking reduces belief in conspiracy theories (Swami et al., 2014), thus enabling students to distinguish scientific arguments from fake information.”
Background
Religious Conspiracy Theories About the COVID-19 Pandemic Are Associated With Negative Mental Health
Košárková, A., Maliňáková, K., Novák, L., van Dijk, J. P., & Tavel, P. (2022) · International Journal of Public Health · doi:10.3389/ijph.2022.1604324 · Cited by 7
“It was also found that beliefs in conspiracy theories may be linked to negative health and adverse social effects [10, 12].”
Background
Attitudes towards science
(2017) · OECD economic surveys. Austria · doi:10.1787/eco_surveys-aut-2017-graph59-en · Cited by 9
“Think for Yourself, or Others Will Think for You”: Predicting Belief in Conspiracy Theories with Epistemic Individualism and Critical Thinking DispositionsPreprint
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Investigating the relationship of actively open-minded thinking in future time perspectives among Saudi undergraduate students
Mohamed, T. N., & Bendania, A. (2023) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-023-01851-7 · Cited by 7
“Therefore, active open-minded thinking is a strong predictor of performance on heuristics and biased exercises, as well as avoiding reasoning traps such as belief in superstitions and conspiracy theories (Swami et al., 2014).”
Conspiracy theories and the epistemic power of narratives
Munro, D. (2024) · Philosophical Psychology · doi:10.1080/09515089.2024.2381538 · Cited by 7
“5 Empirical evidence suggests that people tend to believe conspiracy theories and other forms of misinformation as a result of intuitive judgments of truth, rather than based on more analytical or reflective thinking (Binnendyk & Pennycook, 2022; Pennycook & Rand, 2019; Swami et al., 2014).”
Are conspiracy beliefs a sign of flawed cognition? Reexamining the association of cognitive style and skills with conspiracy beliefs
Imhoff, R., & Bertlich, T. (2024) · Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review · doi:10.37016/mr-2020-168 · Cited by 6
“Research has provided support for the notion that conspiracy endorsement results from less analytical thinking (Swami et al., 2014, but see Većkalov et al., 2024 for failed replications) and that conspiracy theories are particularly endorsed by people low in cognitive reflection, analytic or…”
Conspiracy Theories and Religious Worldviews: Unraveling a Complex Relationship
Hesse, J., & Weidemann, C. (2025) · Episteme · doi:10.1017/epi.2024.55 · Cited by 6
“The overemphasis of holistic over analytic thinking is according to some studies positively correlated with conspiratorial thinking (see, e.g., Swami et al. 2014) and religious beliefs (see, e.g., Pennycook et al. 2012).”
Need for cognitive closure, political trust, and belief in conspiracy theories during the COVID-19 pandemic
Jedinger, A., & Masch, L. (2025) · Frontiers in Social Psychology · doi:10.3389/frsps.2024.1447313 · Cited by 6
Pro‐Science Beliefs: The Role of Analytic Thinking and Epistemic Values
Yilmaz, S., & Ståhl, T. (2025) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/sjop.13114 · Cited by 6
“Importantly, analytic thinking has been found to be associated with disbelief in a variety of epistemically suspect beliefs, such as conspiracy theories (Swami et al. 2014) and paranormal beliefs (Pennycook et al. 2012).”
Norm-enhanced prebunking for actively open-minded thinking indirectly improves misinformation discernment and reduces conspiracy beliefs
Biddlestone, M., Ziemer, C.-T., Maertens, R., Roozenbeek, J., & van der Linden, S. (2025) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2025.104818 · Cited by 8
Conspiracy beliefs in the context of a comprehensive rationality assessment
Stanovich, K., & Toplak, M. E. (2024) · Thinking & Reasoning · doi:10.1080/13546783.2024.2368026 · Cited by 6
“…thinking in our battery of best predictors, the 29.0% variance explained is higher than most other attempts to explain conspir-acy belief that does not include conspiracy mentality itself as a predictor (e.g., Barron et al., 2014; Šrol, 2022; Ståhl & van Prooijen, 2018; Swami et al., 2014).”
Influential

Authors: Swami, V., Voracek, M., Stieger, S., Tran, U. S., & Furnham, A.
Affiliations: University of Westminster (GB)
University of Vienna (AT)
University College London (GB)
Corresponding author: Swami, Viren
ORCID: Swami, Viren
Voracek, Martin
Stieger, Stefan
Tran, Ulrich S.
Furnham, Adrian
Venue: Cognition
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2014-12
Volume: 133
Issue: 3
Pages: 572-585
ISSN: 0010-0277 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2014.08.006
OpenAlex: W1965444852
Cited by: 726
References: 105
Citations by year: 2026: 49 · 2025: 77 · 2024: 81 · 2023: 71 · 2022: 122 · 2021: 100 · 2020: 94 · 2019: 43 · 2018: 37 · 2017: 23 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 15
FWCI: 55.37
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
nbn-resolving.de
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Cognition (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
WestminsterResearch (University of Westminster) (acceptedVersion)
KOPS (University of Konstanz) (submittedVersion)
UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Misinformation and Its Impacts
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Paranormal Experiences and Beliefs
Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
Keywords: conspiracy theories, analytical thinking, conspiracist ideation, intuitive thinking, open-mindedness, verbal fluency
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Culture, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Personality, Thinking, Young Adult

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Analytic thinking reduces belief in conspiracy theories

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