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Analytic thinking reduces belief in conspiracy theories
Open accessAbstract
Belief in conspiracy theories has been associated with a range of negative health, civic, and social outcomes, requiring reliable methods of reducing such belief. Thinking dispositions have been highlighted as one possible factor associated with belief in conspiracy theories, but actual relationships have only been infrequently studied. In Study 1, we examined associations between belief in conspiracy theories and a range of measures of thinking dispositions in a British sample (N=990). Results indicated that a stronger belief in conspiracy theories was significantly associated with lower analytic thinking and open-mindedness and greater intuitive thinking. In Studies 2-4, we examined the causational role played by analytic thinking in relation to conspiracist ideation. In Study 2 (N=112), we showed that a verbal fluency task that elicited analytic thinking reduced belief in conspiracy theories. In Study 3 (N=189), we found that an alternative method of eliciting analytic thinking, which related to cognitive disfluency, was effective at reducing conspiracist ideation in a student sample. In Study 4, we replicated the results of Study 3 among a general population sample (N=140) in relation to generic conspiracist ideation and belief in conspiracy theories about the July 7, 2005, bombings in London. Our results highlight the potential utility of supporting attempts to promote analytic thinking as a means of countering the widespread acceptance of conspiracy theories.
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“Conspiracy belief is correlated with lower levels of analytic thinking (Swami, Voracek, Stieger, Tran, & Furnham, 2014)”
From The Psychology of Conspiracy Theories (2017) · cites this paper as Swami, Voracek, Stieger, Tran, & Furnham, 2014
In the citing paper
“Recent research has linked individual differences in analytic thinking with skepticism about various epistemically suspect information, such as fake news (Pennycook & Rand, 2019;2020), religious and paranormal beliefs (Pennycook et al., 2016;Shenhav et al., 2012), conspiracy theories (Swami et al., 2014), and pseudo-profound bullshit (Pennycook et al., 2015;Pennycook & Rand, 2020).”
From The detection of political deepfakes (2022) · cites this paper as Swami et al., 2014
In the citing paper
“This result extends prior research that associated analytic thinking with higher scrutiny towards other post-truth phenomena, such as fake news (Pennycook & Rand, 2019, 2020) and conspiracy theories (Swami et al., 2014).”
From The detection of political deepfakes (2022) · cites this paper as Swami et al., 2014
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“In particular, anger or outrage about an issue has been associated with an unwillingness to consider the other side of the argument (Suhay & Erisen, 2018; Swami et al., 2014) and specifically to confirmation bias (Dickinson, 2022).”
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“The in fl uencing process of belief in conspiracy theory is associated with intuitive thinking (Swami et al., 2014).”
BackgroundNorske læreres forståelser av konspirasjonsteorier
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“That ’ s not to say, however, that being interested in explaining complex phenomena (hereby operationalised as NC) is irrelevant as Swami et al. (2014) seem to suggest.”
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“Individuals with higher levels of education are less prone to conspiracy theories since they are better equipped to think analytically or logically and therefore are more aware of opposing viewpoints (Swami et al., 2014).”
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“It has been seen that people with less critical thinking skills and life experiences (e.g. young adults) are more susceptible to conspiracy theories than mature adults (Swami et al. 2014).”
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“It is also known that media, information, and data literacy competence, as well as critical and analytical thinking skills, are effective in shaping the belief in conspiracy theo - ries (Fabbro & Gabbi, 2024; Kelly, 2023; Muscat-Inglott, 2023; Swami et al., 2014; Takeda, 2022).”
Buchmayr, F., & Krouwel, A. (2025) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.13085 · Cited by 3
“…blame the lower cognitive abilities of people at the lower end of the education spectrum for these effects (Douglas et al., 2016; van Prooijen, 2017; Swami et al., 2014), yet we assume that their marginal position within society might actually be a more plausible cause (Douglas et al., 2019).”
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“Este hallazgo se suma al de otros estudios que identificaron las mismas relaciones entre el CRT y creencias conspirativas, con conclusiones similares (Sadeghiyeh et al., 2020; Ståhl & Van Prooijen, 2018; Swami et al., 2014).”
BackgroundPolitische Erwachsenenbildung im Umgang mit Verschwörungstheorien in Zeiten der COVID-19-Pandemie
Firsova-Eckert, E., Scheibenpflug, K., & Lange, D. (2022) · Gesellschaft, Wirtschaft, Politik · doi:10.3224/gwp.v71i4.09 · Cited by 2
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“Swami et al (2014) found that certain tasks designed to elicit analytical thinking (the careful, deliberate processing of information) helped reduce conspiratorial beliefs.”
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“Cognitive reflection is also positively associated with higher scepticism towards paranormal beliefs 60 , acceptance of scientific claims 62 , and rejection of conspiracy theories 63 .”
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“More commonly, belief in conspiracy hypotheses has been linked to anxiety, uncertainty (Douglas et al., 2017), a lack of analytical thinking (Swami et al., 2014), or lower levels of education (Douglas et al., 2016).”
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“Moreover, correlation analyses within countries indicate that CTs tend to cluster thematically, with identifiable patterns of co-belief, such as those related to electoral integrity and COVID-19, especially in countries like Canada and the United States.”
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“…2018; Denovan, 2020; Dagnall, 2015; Stasielowicz, 2022), having lower need for cognition (Lobato et al., 2014), lower levels of analytic thinking (Swami et al, 2014), seeing agency and intentionality when it is not present (Douglas et al., 2016; although see Dieguez, 2015), and some other…”
Background“The Medium is the Massage/Message”: Functions of Synthetic Media in Sense-Making Conditions
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BackgroundIncreased reliance on heuristic thinking in mild cognitive impairment
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“…associated with all sorts of fundamental beliefs about the world, including political values (Deppe et al., 2015), moral values (Pennycook et al., 2014), religiosity (Gervais & Norenzayan, 2012; Zemla et al., 2016), conspiratorial beliefs (Swami et al., 2014), and much more (Pennycook, 2023).”
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Ük, B., & Bahçekapılı, H. G. (2022) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-1603792/v1 · Cited by 1
Do you trust the rumors? Examining the determinants of health-related misinformation in India.Preprint
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Alper, S., Düzgün, A., Atalay, E. D., & Yılmaz, O. (2024) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/b5928 · Cited by 1
Anderson, D. A. (2016) · PDXScholar (Portland State University)
Lost in the labyrinth: Understanding idiosyncratic interpretations of Kubrick's The Shining
Merced, M. (2018) · International Journal of Applied Psychoanalytic Studies · doi:10.1002/aps.1592
The fire burns within: Individual motivations for self-sacrifice
Rahal, R.-M. (2018) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x18001851
Why Do You Believe in Pseudoscience or Disbelieve in Science?
Majima, Y. (2019) · Advances in religious and cultural studies (ARCS) book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-1811-3.ch005
What Makes a Belief Seem Implausible to Others? A Q Methodology Study of Conspiracy Beliefs
Daniel, L. (2020) · UEL Research Repository (University of East London) · doi:10.15123/uel.88850
Del pensamiento crítico a la argumentación (crítica): Bordeando la irracionalidad
Banegas, J. A. (2024) · Lógoi Revista de Filosofía · doi:10.62876/lr.vi038.6467
Hubacher, M. S. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-33255-6_8
“…beispielsweise in Bezug auf Verschwörungstheorien und Fake News beobachten: Es scheint, als ginge verschwörungstheoretisches Denken im Allgemeinen (Swami et al. 2014) und die Anfälligkeit für Fake News im Speziellen (Bronstein et al. 2019; Pennycook und Rand 2019) Hand in Hand mit einem schwachen…”
BackgroundUma análise do fenômeno ‘fake news’ com base na Economia Comportamental
Pinto, M. F., Sbicca, A., & Casonato, L. (2021) · Economia e Desenvolvimento · doi:10.5902/1414650949203
Edgcumbe, D. R. (2020) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/fnrmv
Was Phar Lap killed by gangsters? New research shows which conspiracies people believe in and why
Marques, M.-H. E., McLennan, J., Williams, M. N., Kerr, J., & Ling, M. (2021) · doi:10.64628/aa.nk44qswdf
Justice, J. W. (2021) · Advances in linguistics and communication studies · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-7439-3.ch012
El Virus Conspirativo: Una vacuna
Pomar, F. L. D. (2021) · doi:10.52749/rh.v1i1.5
AN INVESTIGATION ON COVID-19 CONSPIRACY THEORY BELIEFS AMONGST PAKISTANI MUSLIMS
Ashraf, M. (2021) · Gomal University Journal of Research · doi:10.51380/gujr-37-03-10
Combatting misinformation - Does analytical thinking help or hurt?
Vu, D. H. (2021) · NORA - Norwegian Open Research Archives
Santos, H. C., Meyer, M. N., & Chabris, C. F. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/6wy53
Metadata
- Authors
- Swami, V., Voracek, M., Stieger, S., Tran, U. S., & Furnham, A.
- Affiliations
- University of Westminster (GB)
- University of Vienna (AT)
- University College London (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Swami, Viren
- Venue
- Cognition
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2014-12
- Volume
- 133
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 572-585
- ISSN
- 0010-0277 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1965444852
- Cited by
- 726
- References
- 105
- Citations by year
- 2026: 49 · 2025: 77 · 2024: 81 · 2023: 71 · 2022: 122 · 2021: 100 · 2020: 94 · 2019: 43 · 2018: 37 · 2017: 23 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 15
- FWCI
- 55.37
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- nbn-resolving.de
- Locations
- Cognition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- WestminsterResearch (University of Westminster) (acceptedVersion)
- KOPS (University of Konstanz) (submittedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Misinformation and Its Impacts
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Paranormal Experiences and Beliefs
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
- Keywords
- conspiracy theories, analytical thinking, conspiracist ideation, intuitive thinking, open-mindedness, verbal fluency
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Culture, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Personality, Thinking, Young Adult
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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