Cited by 726Misinformation and Its ImpactsParanormal Experiences and BeliefsDecision-Making and Behavioral Economics

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Analytic thinking reduces belief in conspiracy theories

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Swami, Viren, Voracek, Martin, Stieger, Stefan, Tran, Ulrich S., Furnham, Adrian·2014·Cognition

DOI 10.1016/j.cognition.2014.08.006

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Abstract

Belief in conspiracy theories has been associated with a range of negative health, civic, and social outcomes, requiring reliable methods of reducing such belief. Thinking dispositions have been highlighted as one possible factor associated with belief in conspiracy theories, but actual relationships have only been infrequently studied. In Study 1, we examined associations between belief in conspiracy theories and a range of measures of thinking dispositions in a British sample (N=990). Results indicated that a stronger belief in conspiracy theories was significantly associated with lower analytic thinking and open-mindedness and greater intuitive thinking. In Studies 2-4, we examined the causational role played by analytic thinking in relation to conspiracist ideation. In Study 2 (N=112), we showed that a verbal fluency task that elicited analytic thinking reduced belief in conspiracy theories. In Study 3 (N=189), we found that an alternative method of eliciting analytic thinking, which related to cognitive disfluency, was effective at reducing conspiracist ideation in a student sample. In Study 4, we replicated the results of Study 3 among a general population sample (N=140) in relation to generic conspiracist ideation and belief in conspiracy theories about the July 7, 2005, bombings in London. Our results highlight the potential utility of supporting attempts to promote analytic thinking as a means of countering the widespread acceptance of conspiracy theories.

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Mao, J., Zeng, Z., Yang, S., Guo, Y., Wang, B., & van Prooijen, J. (2025) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjop.70016 · Cited by 3
“Since both hypersensitive agency detection and illusory pattern perception reflect cognitive fallacies, enhancing cognitive skills (e.g., analytic thinking, Swami et al., 2014) and promoting epistemic rationality (Ståhl & van Prooijen, 2018) during crises may help mitigate such beliefs.”
Differentiating Trust Profiles: An Analysis of Users’ Situational Trust in Generative Artificial Intelligence and Its Antecedents
Lin, C., Zou, W., & Liu, Z. (2025) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2025.2530073 · Cited by 3
“However, the practice of critical evaluation can diminish susceptibility to misinformation and enhance trust in scientific discourse (O ’ Brien et al., 2021; Swami et al., 2014).”
The roles of need frustration and regulatory focus in conspiratorial thinking
Hunsinger, M., & Parker, M. (2025) · Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/j.lmot.2025.102188 · Cited by 3
Effects of emotion, emotional tolerance, and emotional processing on reasoning
Harvey, A. M., & Kisley, M. A. (2023) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2023.2228539 · Cited by 5
“Individuals who do not reflect on their thinking are more likely to endorse superstition, pseudoscience, and conspiracy theories (Brotherton & French, 2014; Pennycook et al., 2015; Swami et al., 2014).”
Background
Analysis of ‘Flat-Earther’ Posts on Social Media: Reflections for Science Education from the Discursive Perspective of Foucault
de Melo, L. W. S., Passos, M. M., & Salvi, R. F. (2020) · Revista Brasileira de Pesquisa em Educação em Ciências · doi:10.28976/1984-2686rbpec2020u295313 · Cited by 3
“…to be any narrative or plot that accuses certain groups of people or organizations, which are most of the time powerful and in some cases mysterious, to come together to work, secretly, usually for malevolent goals (Goertzel, 1994; Wood, Douglas, & Sutton, 2012; Swami et al., 2014; Prooijen, 2017).”
Background
Conspiracy Theories
Fountoulakis, K. Ν. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-86541-2_25 · Cited by 3
Conspiracy Theory Belief and Conspiratorial Thinking
Farhart, C. E. (2022) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108779104.036 · Cited by 3
Influence of fear on anti-vaccine conspiracy theories and behaviour against vaccination
Malas, O. (2023) · Revista de PSICOLOGÍA DE LA SALUD · doi:10.21134/pssa.v11i1.321 · Cited by 3
Conspiracy mentality, subclinical paranoia, and political conservatism are associated with perceived status threat
Koller, W. N., Thompson, H., & Cannon, T. D. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0293930 · Cited by 3
From Psychological Distress and Distrust to Conspiracy Beliefs: A Constructivist Study of Negative Phenomena of the COVID-19 Pandemic
Kovář, D., Filip, M., & Kovářová, M. (2023) · Journal of Constructivist Psychology · doi:10.1080/10720537.2023.2294323 · Cited by 5
“…research found a variety of individual differences in cognition in the propensity to adopt conspiracy beliefs, such as low analytical thinking (Swami et al., 2014), low reflective thinking (Yelbuz et al., 2022), and the need for cognitive closure (a need to find immediately clear beliefs…”
The strength of conspiracy beliefs versus scientific information: the case of COVID 19 preventive behaviours
Pinazo, D., Nieto, S. A., Arahuete, L., Peris, R., Barrós, A., & Rodríguez, C. V. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1325600 · Cited by 3
“…beliefs are a group of false ideas in which the ultimate cause of certain events or situations is judged as being a plot devised by many actors working together with a clear goal in mind, which is unlawful and secret (Swami et al., 2014) and with a negative intent (European Commission, 2020).”
Background
Prejudice is epistemically unwarranted belief
Lobato, E. J. C., & Holbrook, C. (2024) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.4216 · Cited by 3
People who believe implausible claims are not cognitive misers: Evidence from evaluation tasks.
Robson, S. G., Faasse, K., Gordon, E.-R., Jones, S. P., Smith, N., & Martire, K. A. (2024) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/mac0000190 · Cited by 4
The Crisis of Misinformation and Dark Creativity
Kapoor, H., & Puthillam, A. (2024) · Palgrave studies in creativity and innovation in organizations · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-61782-9_9 · Cited by 5
In the world of plastics: how thinking style influences preference for cosmetic surgery
Mittal, S., Warnell, K. R., & Silvera, D. H. (2021) · Marketing Letters · doi:10.1007/s11002-021-09576-6 · Cited by 3
Conviction in the absence of proof: Conspiracy mentality mediates religiosity’s relationship with support for COVID-19 conspiracy narratives
Grabow, H., & Rock, A. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1026144 · Cited by 2
Credibility cues of conspiracy narratives: exploring the belief-driven credibility evaluation of a YouTube conspiracy video
Lischka, J. A. (2024) · Information Communication & Society · doi:10.1080/1369118x.2024.2334391 · Cited by 2
“In this regard, analytical thinking is found to decrease the belief in conspiracy theories (Swami et al., 2014).”
Navigating the information environment about the Ukraine war
Corbu, N., Udrea, G., Buturoiu, R., & Negrea-Busuioc, E. (2024) · Convergence The International Journal of Research into New Media Technologies · doi:10.1177/13548565241247412 · Cited by 4
“…associates with false information detection and on studies demonstrating that engaging in analytical thinking reduces belief in conspiracy theories (Swami et al., 2014), we hypothesized that people with a conspiracy mindset are less pro ﬁ cient at navigating the complex media environment from an…”
Paranormalism, Voting Intention, and Other Conspiracy Mentality Predictors in Sweden
Tidelius, C. (2024) · Temenos - Nordic Journal for the Study of Religion · doi:10.33356/temenos.144628 · Cited by 2
Testing the persuasiveness of conspiracy theories: a comparison of narrative and argumentative strategies
Adornetti, I., Altavilla, D., Chiera, A., Deriu, V., Gerna, A., Picca, L., & Ferretti, F. (2025) · Cognitive Processing · doi:10.1007/s10339-025-01282-9 · Cited by 2
“…years, the study of CTs has become a particularly relevant area of research in the psychological sciences (Brotherton 2015 ; dos Reis et al. 2024 ; Douglas et al. 2017 ; Miani et al. submitted; Pilch et al. 2023; Swami et al. 2014 ; van Der Linden et al. 2023 ; van Prooijen and van Vugt 2018 ).”
Determinants and consequences of belief in Islamophobic conspiracy theories among youth in India
Sharma, S., Shahnawaz, M., & Zafar, M. (2025) · Asian Journal Of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/ajsp.70053 · Cited by 2
Development and initial validation of a situational judgment test for the measurement of actively open-minded thinking
Erceg, N., Vrhovnik, A., Galić, Z., & Ružojčić, M. (2025) · Judgment and Decision Making · doi:10.1017/jdm.2025.10008 · Cited by 2
Testing the impact of fallacies and contrarian claims in climate change misinformation
Lieu, R., Hayes, O. R., & Cook, J. (2025) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjop.70049 · Cited by 2
The Impact of Foreign Language on Meta-Reasoning in Moral Decisions
Hu, Z., Мартин-Луенго, Б., & Navarrete, E. (2026) · Journal of Cognition · doi:10.5334/joc.472 · Cited by 2
“…in tasks with decreased processing fluency, researchers have consistently observed a diminution of cognitive biases such as the Moses illusion (Song & Schwarz, 2008), belief in conspiracy theories (Swami et al., 2014), and causality bias (Díaz-Lago & Matute, 2019a, but see, Bona & Vicovaro, 2024).”
Open-mindedness predicts support for public health measures and disbelief in conspiracy theories during the COVID-19 pandemic across 68 countries
Pärnamets, P., Alfano, M., Ross, R. M., & Bavel, J. J. V. (2026) · Judgment and Decision Making · doi:10.1017/jdm.2026.10033 · Cited by 2
Combatting Conspiratorial Thinking with Controlled Argumentation Dialogue Environments
Fields, L., & Licato, J. (2022) · Argumentation library · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-91017-4_15 · Cited by 2
Reports of the Death of Expertise may be Exaggerated
Santos, H. C., Meyer, M. N., & Chabris, C. F. (2022) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003111474-8 · Cited by 2

Authors: Swami, V., Voracek, M., Stieger, S., Tran, U. S., & Furnham, A.
Affiliations: University of Westminster (GB)
University of Vienna (AT)
University College London (GB)
Corresponding author: Swami, Viren
ORCID: Swami, Viren
Voracek, Martin
Stieger, Stefan
Tran, Ulrich S.
Furnham, Adrian
Venue: Cognition
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2014-12
Volume: 133
Issue: 3
Pages: 572-585
ISSN: 0010-0277 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2014.08.006
OpenAlex: W1965444852
Cited by: 726
References: 105
Citations by year: 2026: 49 · 2025: 77 · 2024: 81 · 2023: 71 · 2022: 122 · 2021: 100 · 2020: 94 · 2019: 43 · 2018: 37 · 2017: 23 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 15
FWCI: 55.37
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
nbn-resolving.de
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Cognition (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
WestminsterResearch (University of Westminster) (acceptedVersion)
KOPS (University of Konstanz) (submittedVersion)
UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Misinformation and Its Impacts
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Paranormal Experiences and Beliefs
Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
Keywords: conspiracy theories, analytical thinking, conspiracist ideation, intuitive thinking, open-mindedness, verbal fluency
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Culture, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Personality, Thinking, Young Adult

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Analytic thinking reduces belief in conspiracy theories

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