Identity after the ballot: How winning and losing impact partisan attachments and affective polarization

The Social Identity Theory of Intergroup Behavior

Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (2004) · Political Psychology · doi:10.4324/9780203505984-16 · Cited by 13,467 · see citing works

Affect, Not Ideology

Iyengar, S., Sood, G., & Lelkes, Y. (2012) · Public Opinion Quarterly · doi:10.1093/poq/nfs038 · Cited by 2,748 · see citing works

Uncivil Agreement: How Politics Became Our Identity

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An Integrated Threat Theory of Prejudice

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Intergroup Threat and Outgroup Attitudes: A Meta-Analytic Review

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Beyond the Running Tally: Partisan Bias in Political Perceptions

Bartels, L. M. (2002) · Political Behavior · doi:10.1023/a:1021226224601 · Cited by 1,468 · see citing works

Expressive Partisanship: Campaign Involvement, Political Emotion, and Partisan Identity

HUDDY, L., MASON, L., & AARØE, L. (2015) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055414000604 · Cited by 1,415 · see citing works

Validating vignette and conjoint survey experiments against real-world behavior

Hainmueller, J., Hangartner, D., & Yamamoto, T. (2015) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1416587112 · Cited by 1,344 · see citing works

Status threat, not economic hardship, explains the 2016 presidential vote

Mutz, D. C. (2018) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1718155115 · Cited by 1,236 · see citing works

Uncertainty–identity theory

Hogg, M. A. (2007) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(06)39002-8 · Cited by 990 · see citing works

Validating the demographic, political, psychological, and experimental results obtained from a new source of online survey respondents

Coppock, A., & McClellan, O. A. (2019) · Research & Politics · doi:10.1177/2053168018822174 · Cited by 987 · see citing works

A Model of Social Identity with an Application to Political Economy: Nation, Class, and Redistribution

Shayo, M. (2009) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055409090194 · Cited by 966 · see citing works

What do we measure when we measure affective polarization?

Druckman, J. N., & Levendusky, M. S. (2019) · Public Opinion Quarterly · doi:10.1093/poq/nfz003 · Cited by 615 · see citing works

Demand Effects in Survey Experiments: An Empirical Assessment

MUMMOLO, J., & PETERSON, E. (2019) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055418000837 · Cited by 548 · see citing works

Are Survey Experiments Externally Valid?

BARABAS, J., & JERIT, J. (2010) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055410000092 · Cited by 481 · see citing works

Winning, Losing and Satisfaction with Democracy

Blais, A., & Gélineau, F. (2007) · Political Studies · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9248.2007.00659.x · Cited by 341 · see citing works

Differentiating winners: How elections affect satisfaction with democracy

Singh, S. P., Karakoç, E., & Blais, A. (2011) · Electoral Studies · doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2011.11.001 · Cited by 245 · see citing works

Current research overstates American support for political violence

Westwood, S. J., Grimmer, J., Tyler, M., & Nall, C. (2022) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2116870119 · Cited by 221 · see citing works

Does Electoral Competition Exacerbate Interethnic or Interpartisan Economic Discrimination? Evidence from a Field Experiment in Market Price Bargaining

MICHELITCH, K. (2015) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055414000628 · Cited by 186 · see citing works

Party Animals? Extreme Partisan Polarization and Dehumanization

Martherus, J., Martinez, A. G., Piff, P. K., & Theodoridis, A. G. (2019) · Political Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11109-019-09559-4 · Cited by 185 · see citing works

Affective polarization and the salience of elections

Hernández, E., Anduiza, E., & Rico, G. (2020) · Electoral Studies · doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2020.102203 · Cited by 182 · see citing works

The Short-Form Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire (BPAQ-SF)

Diamond, P., & Magaletta, P. (2006) · Assessment (Odessa, Fla.) · doi:10.1177/1073191106287666 · Cited by 180 · see citing works

Social Identity and Economic Policy

Shayo, M. (2020) · Annual Review of Economics · doi:10.1146/annurev-economics-082019-110313 · Cited by 180 · see citing works

Increasing Precision without Altering Treatment Effects: Repeated Measures Designs in Survey Experiments

Clifford, S., Sheagley, G., & Piston, S. (2021) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055421000241 · Cited by 157 · see citing works

Perceived Threat, Social Identification, and Psychological Well‐Being: The Effects of Political Conflict Exposure

Schmid, K., & Muldoon, O. (2015) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12073 · Cited by 157 · see citing works

Jumping on the Bandwagon with the Underdog: The Impact of Attitude Polls on Polling Behavior

Ceci, S., & Kain, E. (1982) · doi:10.1086/268715 · Cited by 152

Cross-Community Contact, Perceived Status Differences, and Intergroup Attitudes in Northern Ireland: The Mediating Roles of Individual-level versus Group-level Threats and the Moderating Role of Social Identification

Tausch, N., Hewstone, M., Kenworthy, J., Cairns, E., & Christ, O. (2007) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9221.2007.00551.x · Cited by 150 · see citing works

Electoral losers revisited – How citizens react to defeat at the ballot box

Esaiasson, P. (2011) · Electoral Studies · doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2010.09.009 · Cited by 146 · see citing works

Democratic Hypocrisy and Out-Group Threat: Explaining Citizen Support for Democratic Erosion

Simonovits, G., Mccoy, J., & Littvay, L. (2022) · Journal of Politics · doi:10.1086/719009 · Cited by 143 · see citing works

Expressive Versus Instrumental Partisanship in Multiparty European Systems

Huddy, L., Bankert, A., & Davies, C. L. (2018) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12482 · Cited by 139 · see citing works

Effect of Media Environment Diversity and Advertising Tone on Information Search, Selective Exposure, and Affective Polarization

Lau, R. R., Andersen, D. J., Ditonto, T. M., Kleinberg, M. S., & Redlawsk, D. P. (2017) · Political Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11109-016-9354-8 · Cited by 127 · see citing works

Reducing affective polarization: Warm group relations or policy compromise?

Huddy, L., & Yair, O. (2021) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12699 · Cited by 124 · see citing works

Electoral Cycle Fluctuations in Partisanship: Global Evidence from Eighty-Six Countries

Michelitch, K. G., & Utych, S. (2018) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.1086/694783 · Cited by 124 · see citing works

How partisan affect shapes citizens' perception of the political world

Ward, D. G., & Tavits, M. (2019) · Electoral Studies · doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2019.04.009 · Cited by 121 · see citing works

Distancing from a stigmatized social identity: State of the art and future research agenda on self‐group distancing

van Veelen, R., Veldman, J., van Laar, C., & Derks, B. (2020) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2714 · Cited by 111 · see citing works

Threats, Emotions, and Affective Polarization

Renström, E. A., Bäck, H., & Carroll, R. (2023) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12899 · Cited by 102 · see citing works

Validating the feeling thermometer as a measure of partisan affect in multi-party systems

Gidron, N., Sheffer, L., & Mor, G. (2022) · Electoral Studies · doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2022.102542 · Cited by 99 · see citing works

Economic inequality, winner-loser gap, and satisfaction with democracy

Han, S.-M., & Chang, E. C. C. (2016) · Electoral Studies · doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2016.08.006 · Cited by 75 · see citing works

How to be Gracious about Political Loss—The Importance of Good Loser Messages in Policy Controversies

Esaiasson, P., Arnesen, S., & Werner, H. (2022) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/00104140221109433 · Cited by 70 · see citing works

Sweet victory, bitter defeat: The amplifying effects of affective and perceived ideological polarization on the winner–loser gap in political support

Janssen, L. A. (2023) · European Journal of Political Research · doi:10.1111/1475-6765.12625 · Cited by 56 · see citing works

Do Violent Protests Affect Expressions of Party Identity? Evidence from the Capitol Insurrection

Eady, G., Hjorth, F., & Dinesen, P. T. (2022) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055422001058 · Cited by 55 · see citing works

Identifying the bandwagon effect in two-round elections

Kiss, A., & Simonovits, G. (2014) · Public Choice · doi:10.1007/s11127-013-0146-y · Cited by 51 · see citing works

Scooping the Voters? The Consequences of the Networks' Early Call of the 1980 Presidential Race

Carpini, M. X. D. (1984) · Journal of Politics · doi:10.2307/2130859 · Cited by 51

Losers lose more than winners win: Asymmetrical effects of winning and losing in elections

Hansen, S. W., Klemmensen, R., & Serritzlew, S. (2019) · European Journal of Political Research · doi:10.1111/1475-6765.12329 · Cited by 45 · see citing works

Partisan in-group bias before and after elections

Sheffer, L. (2020) · Electoral Studies · doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2020.102191 · Cited by 41 · see citing works

People believe political opponents accept blatant moral wrongs, fueling partisan divides

Puryear, C., Kubin, E., Schein, C., Bigman, Y., Ekstrom, P. D., & Gray, K. J. (2024) · PNAS Nexus · doi:10.1093/pnasnexus/pgae244 · Cited by 40 · see citing works

Deepening the rift: Negative campaigning fosters affective polarization in multiparty elections

Martin, D., & Nai, A. (2024) · Electoral Studies · doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2024.102745 · Cited by 38 · see citing works

Elite communication and affective polarization among voters

Bäck, H., Carroll, R., Renström, E. A., & Ryan, A. (2023) · Electoral Studies · doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2023.102639 · Cited by 37 · see citing works

Expressive Responding and Belief in 2020 Election Fraud

Graham, M. H., & Yair, O. (2023) · Political Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11109-023-09875-w · Cited by 31 · see citing works

Persistent polarization: The unexpected durability of political animosity around US elections

Fasching, N., Iyengar, S., Yphtach Lelkes, B., & Westwood, S. J. (2024) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.adm9198 · Cited by 30 · see citing works

Bandwagon effects in British elections, 1885–1910

Hodgson, R., & Maloney, J. (2013) · doi:10.1007/s11127-012-0027-9 · Cited by 19

Recategorization and ingroup projection: Two processes of identity uncertainty reduction

Jung, J., Hogg, M., & Choi, H.-S. (2018) · Journal of Theoretical Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/jts5.37 · Cited by 14 · see citing works

Differentiating the sources of post‐election partisan affect warming

Gidron, N., & Sheffer, L. (2024) · European Journal of Political Research · doi:10.1111/1475-6765.12641 · Cited by 14 · see citing works

Imagined otherness fuels blatant dehumanization of outgroups

van Loon, A., Goldberg, A., & Srivastava, S. B. (2024) · Communications Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44271-024-00087-4 · Cited by 12 · see citing works

Winners, losers, and affective polarization

Andrews, J., & Huang, Y.-S. (2025) · Party Politics · doi:10.1177/13540688241292556 · Cited by 11 · see citing works

Sowing the seeds of skepticism? Electoral-integrity beliefs among political elites

Schnaudt, C. (2023) · Electoral Studies · doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2023.102654 · Cited by 10

Election integrity across Europe: who thinks elections are held fairly and why?

Goldberg, A. C., & Plescia, C. (2024) · European Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s1755773924000055 · Cited by 8 · see citing works

Social trust and the winner-loser gap

Bargsted, M., & González-Ide, A. (2024) · Electoral Studies · doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2024.102869 · Cited by 7 · see citing works

Election Outcomes and Affective Polarization in the United States

Phillips, J. B., & Warner, S. B. (2026) · Political Research Quarterly · doi:10.1177/10659129251411892 · Cited by 5 · see citing works

Measuring affective polarization: Matching concepts to measures

Druckman, J. N., Klar, S., Krupnikov, Y., Levendusky, M., & Ryan, J. B. (2026) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.70152 · Cited by 1 · see citing works

What drives affective polarization? A systematic literature review

Kogel, M. J., & Zinnatullin, A. (2026) · European Political Science · doi:10.1017/s1682098326100642

Love Blinds? Winners, In-Party Favoritism, and Support for Violations of Democratic Norms

Huang, Y.-S. (2026) · British Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1017/s0007123426101574

Americans can imagine changing partisan affiliation: evidence from hypothetical scenarios

Coppock, A., Green, D. P., & Porter, E. (2026) · Quarterly Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1108/qjps-02-2025-0026