A large-scale high-resolution geographic analysis of impacts of electric vehicle charging on low-voltage grids
Open accessAbstract
Electric vehicles enable the decarbonization of the transportation sector. Yet, system implications of fully electrified private transportation on national low-voltage grids are still unknown. This study presents a geographic analysis of power system violations on a synthetically generated version of the Swedish low-voltage grid due to home charging of private passenger electric vehicles using different charging strategies. We link a national energy system model with a reference network model that together generate low-voltage proxy grids within each inhabited km2 of Sweden. We produce the first national coverage of electric vehicle charging impacts in residential areas. Our results show that the risk of power system violations due to electric vehicle charging are largest in cities and smaller in urban areas, while rural areas show significantly fewer violations. We also find that an electricity price optimized charging strategy primarily increases the risk of low-voltage power system violations in some city areas. In addition, we find large variations in power system violations in each of Sweden's four price areas. Direct charging is preferable in the far north while price optimized charging is preferable in the far south. The results show variations in impacts on distribution system operators from national low-cost renewable energy systems depending on their geographical location. The findings show important connections between national energy system models and local low-voltage grid violations.
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This study uses a reference network model and GPS driving data to estimate national Swedish low-voltage grid violations from residential EV charging under direct, price-optimized, and V2G strategies. It finds violations concentrated in city and urban areas, with rural areas largely unaffected, and substantial geographic variation by price area.
Key findings
- City areas show an average probability of 24% power system violations at 100% EV integration, with some low-voltage grid cells at 0% and a few at 100%; rural areas show violations in about 1% of low-voltage grid cells.
- Compared with direct charging, price-optimized charging without V2G improves power system violations in about 60% of low-voltage grid cells in both city and urban areas; in city areas, 25–45% of cases using price-optimized strategies (with or without V2G) deteriorate.
- Geographic price-area variation is large: price-optimized charging produces fewer violations than direct charging in 20% of low-voltage grid cells in SE1 versus 99% in SE2; direct charging is preferable in the far north while price-optimized charging is preferable in the far south.
- In city areas, price-optimized charging with V2G is likely net negative for power system violations, while in urban areas price-optimized charging is likely net positive.
Methods
- Synthetic Swedish low-voltage grids are generated by a reference network model in 1 × 1 km² cells using GIS demographic and dwelling data plus low-voltage cable sizing regulations; the model includes residential customers and checks thermal limits and voltage at the point of common connection.
- Grids are populated with 10-min annual household load profiles from the Swedish Energy Agency and EV charging profiles from 429 GPS-tracked combustion vehicles in western Sweden (2010–2012, at least 30 consecutive days), extrapolated to a full year; assumptions include 0.17 kWh/km, 100 kWh battery, 6.9 kW charging, and home charging only.
- Three charging strategies are modeled: direct charging, price-optimized charging without V2G, and price-optimized charging with V2G; price-optimized profiles come from the ELIN-EPOD cost-minimization model with four Swedish price regions, and violations are expressed as a probability index using a bootstrap coincidence distribution with 1000 resamples per vehicle number and 100 household-load runs.
Limitations
- Stated: there is a lack of data on electricity load and charging profiles from the same households; the study tested 1000 combinations but did not assess whether some combinations are more realistic than others.
- Stated: the model excludes non-residential load, likely overestimating grid impacts in areas with significant commercial load, especially city centers; V2G is controlled only by regional price signals, not local voltage or frequency signals, and future work should include additional control signals.
- Stated and evident: price-optimized charging profiles from ELIN-EPOD do not consider congestion in regional or local grids; driving patterns from combustion vehicles are assumed unchanged during large-scale EV adoption, and the synthetic proxy grids rely on assumptions such as average fuse size and customer distribution.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
3 of 22 cited sources checked · 2 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
- Study design and conductcitation
The model does not consider congestions in the regional or local grids.
“the model does not consider congestions in the regional or local grids.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites [39] Taljegard, 2019, Electric vehicles as flexibility management strategy for the electricity system—a comparison between different regions of Europe, Energies source
The modelling description (Renewable Technologies, page unavailable) represents countries as regions and includes transmission bottlenecks between them, so the claim is too broad if it includes regional transmission congestion. The described model does not represent congestion within those regions or in local grids. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
- Premisecitation
Low-voltage grids have large variations in their design.
“Low-voltage grids have large variations in their design [18].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites [18] Postigo Marcos, 2017, A review of power distribution test feeders in the United States and the need for synthetic representative networks, Energies source
- Study design and conductcitation
The theoretical low-voltage grids have been compared to real data [41].
“The theoretical low-voltage grids have been compared to real data [41].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites [41] Hartvigsson, 2021, Estimating national and local low-voltage grid capacity for residential solar photovoltaic in Sweden, UK and Germany, Renew Energy source
- Findingown data
For 633 low-voltage grid cells, direct charging generates lower probability for power system violations than the two price optimized charging strategies.
“For 633 low-voltage grid cells, direct charging generates lower probability for power system violations than the two price optimized charging strategies.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Low-voltage grids in rural areas are unlikely to experience power system violations due to EV charging, regardless of combination of household load profiles and EV charging profiles, or choice of charging strategy.
“The step like behavior seen in Fig. 5, together with the very large share of low-voltage grid cells with a 0% power system violations probability, shows that low-voltage grids in rural areas are unlikely to experience power system violations due to EV charging, regardless of combination of household load profiles and EV charging profiles, or choice of charging strategy.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Findingown data
The probability of power system violations occurring in the low-voltage grids varied significantly between different demographic areas.
“The probability of power system violations occurring in the lowvoltage grids varied significantly between different demographic areas.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
On average, direct charging generates a larger or equal power system violations probability compared to the price-optimized charging in all low-voltage grid cells in urban areas.
“On average, direct charging generates a larger or equal power system violations probability compared to the price-optimized charging in all low-voltage grid cells.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Direct charging shows a larger standard deviation in power system violations than the two price optimized charging strategies in city areas.
“It is also noted that direct charging shows a larger standard deviation in power system violations than the two price optimized charging strategies.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In rural grid cells with power system violations, direct charging generally performs worse than the price optimized charging strategies.
“As seen in Fig. 5, in the grid cells with power system violations, direct charging generally performs worse than the price optimized charging strategies.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
About 1% of the low-voltage grid cells in rural areas show a power system violations probability larger than zero.
“About 1% of the low-voltage grid cells in rural areas shows a power system violations probability larger than zero.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
An electricity price optimized charging strategy primarily increases the risk of low-voltage power system violations in some city areas.
“We also find that an electricity price optimized charging strategy primarily increases the risk of low-voltage power system violations in some city areas.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In city areas, all charging strategies show a similar level of average power system violations probability.
“all charging strategies show a similar level of average power system violations probability.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
There are large variations in power system violations in each of Sweden's four price areas.
“In addition, we find large variations in power system violations in each of Sweden's four price areas.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The difference between direct charging and price-optimized charging in urban areas is largest for low power system violations probabilities.
“The difference is largest for low power system violations probabilities.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In the remaining 1715 low-voltage grid cells, the two price optimized charging strategies result in more low-voltage grid cells with no power system violations than the direct charging strategy.
“In the remaining 1715 lowvoltage grid cells, the two price optimized charging strategies result in more low-voltage grid cells with no power system violations than the direct charging strategy.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The standard deviation in probability is smaller in urban areas than in city areas.
“When comparing city areas in Fig. 3 with urban areas in Fig. 4, it is observed that the standard deviation in probability is smaller in urban areas.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
There is a large difference between price areas in the share of low-voltage grid areas where price optimized charging produces fewer power system violations than direct charging.
“As can be seen there is a large difference between price areas.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Compared to direct charging, price optimized charging without V2G improves power system violations in about 60% of the low-voltage grid cells, both in city and urban areas.
“Compared to direct charging, price optimized charging without V2G improve power system violations in about 60% of the low-voltage grid cells, both in city and urban areas.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Our results produce slightly more power system violations in city/urban areas compared to other studies.
“Comparing our results to previous studies of the low-voltage grids in Sweden, we find that our results produce slightly more power system violations in city/urban areas compared to other studies.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingreasoning
There are significantly more low-voltage grid cells in Gothenburg where direct charging produces fewer power system violations than price optimized charging.
“It is clearly seen that there are significantly more low-voltage grid cells in Gothenburg where direct charging produces fewer power system violations.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
When there is a change, the deterioration is generally larger than the improvement.
“However, when there is a change, the deterioration is generally larger than the improvement.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Depending on which household load profile is combined with which specific EV charging profile there are large variations in power system violation probabilities.
“Depending on which household load profile is combined with which specific EV charging profile there are large variations in power system violation probabilities.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingcitation
Following Steen et al. and Luthander et al., we found that city areas are likely to experience more power system violations than a rural/urban area.
“Following Steen et al. and Luthander et al., we found that city areas are likely to experience more power system violations than a rural/urban area.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Steen et al.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Luthander et al.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Findingown data
For urban areas, the price-optimized charging strategy with V2G shows slightly larger improvements and deterioration than without V2G.
“For urban areas, the price-optimized charging strategy with V2G shows slightly larger improvements and deterioration than without V2G.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingreasoning
Rural low-voltage grids have a low risk of power system violations compared to city and urban areas despite the charging strategy used.
“Rural low-voltage grids have a low risk of power system violations compared to city and urban areas despite the charging strategy used.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
When changes occur, the distribution of deterioration is larger than the corresponding improvement.
“Furthermore, when changes occur, the distribution of deterioration is larger than the corresponding improvement as seen in Fig. 7.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The overall differences in median values between price optimized charging, and price optimized charging with V2G are small.
“As seen in Fig. 7, the overall differences in median values between price optimized charging, and price optimized charging with V2G are small.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In cities, price optimized charging with V2G provides slightly lower changes in power system violations than price optimized charging.
“In cities, as seen in Fig. 7, price optimized charging with V2G provides slightly lower changes in power system violations than price optimized charging.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Our results indicated primarily voltage violations.
“while our results indicated primarily voltage violations”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In city areas, 25-45% of the cases using price optimized charging strategies (with or without V2G) lead to a deterioration in power system violations compared to direct charging.
“In the city areas, 25-45% of the cases using the price optimized charging strategies (with or without V2G) lead to a deterioration in power system violations compared to the direct charging strategy.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In instances when power system deteriorates in cities, the median deterioration is 2% units larger when excluding V2G.
“This indicates that in instances when power system deteriorates in cities, the median deterioration is 2% units larger when excluding V2G.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
For price optimized charging without V2G in City areas, there are fewer low-voltage grid cells that experience a deterioration than an improvement.
“For price optimized charging without V2G in City areas, there are fewer lowvoltage grid cells that experience a deterioration than an improvement.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The results in Figs. 5 and 6 show that there are the fewest power system violations in the rural area irrespective of the charging strategies.
“Similarly, the results in Figs. 5 and 6 show that there are the fewest power system violations in the rural area irrespective of the charging strategies.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Due to the low-voltage grid topology, low-voltage grids in city areas are, to a larger extent, limited by transformer capacity compared to low-voltage grids in urban areas.
“Due to the low-voltage grid topology, low-voltage grids in city areas are, to a larger extent, limited by transformer capacity compared to low-voltage grids in urban areas (see Supplemental Figure A3).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingnone given
There is also a significant difference between SE3 and SE4.
“While less pronounced, there is also a significant difference between SE3 and SE4.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
There are significant differences in power system violations, depending on where the low-voltage grids are located and which charging strategies are being used.
“We found that there are significant differences in power system violations, depending on where the low-voltage grids are located and which charging strategies are being used.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The impact on low-voltage distribution grids from EV charging is especially apparent in city and urban areas (e.g. suburbs).
“By modelling a large set of combinations of household load profiles and EV charging profiles we show that the impact on lowvoltage distribution grids from EV charging is especially apparent in city and urban areas (e.g.suburbs).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: The three charging strategies used in this study were modeled assuming an electricity system without fossil fuels and with a full-scale deployment of EVs (i.e., all passenger vehicles are assumed to be EVs), which add a new household load.
- Findingown data
In city and urban areas, price optimized charging without V2G shows fewer low-voltage grid cells with power system violations than with V2G.
“In city and urban areas, price optimized charging without V2G shows fewer low-voltage grid cells with power system violations than with V2G.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In both city and urban areas, price optimized charging strategies (with or without V2G) result in both improvement and deterioration in power system violations depending on the low-voltage grid cell.
“As can be seen in both the city and urban areas, price optimized charging strategies (with or without V2G) result both in an improvement and deterioration in power system violations depending on the low-voltage grid cell.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
In urban areas, low-voltage grids are, to a larger extent, limited by voltage variations.
“In urban areas, low-voltage grids are, to a larger extent, limited by voltage variations.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductnone given
The value of α has been found through comparison with real-world data on low-voltage grids.
“The value of α has been found through comparison with real-world data on low-voltage grids.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Study design and conductcitation
The sample of 429 vehicles is representative in terms of owner income level, household size, vehicle size and fuel type.
“The sample is representative in terms of owner income level, household size, vehicle size and fuel type.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [31] Björnsson, 2015, Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles: how individual movement patterns affect battery requirements, the potential to replace conventional fuels, and economic viability, Appl Energy source
- Interpretationnone given
The findings show important connections between national energy system models and local low-voltage grid violations.
“The findings show important connections between national energy system models and local low-voltage grid violations.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
The results show variations in impacts on distribution system operators from national low-cost renewable energy systems depending on their geographical location.
“The results show variations in impacts on distribution system operators from national low-cost renewable energy systems depending on their geographical location.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Direct charging in city areas is more sensitive to combinations of EV charging and household load profiles than price optimized charging strategies.
“This suggests that direct charging in city areas is more sensitive to combinations of EV charging and household load profiles than price optimized charging strategies.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Most passenger vehicles are privately owned.
“Most passenger vehicles are privately owned, and a significant part of EV charging is likely to take place at residential properties [5,6].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [5] Charilaos, 2017
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites [6] Morrissey, 2016, Future standard and fast charging infrastructure planning: an analysis of electric vehicle charging behaviour, Energy Pol source
- Interpretationreasoning
The lower power system violation probability in rural areas compared to city and urban areas is likely due to two factors: design capacity per customer and discrete sizes of network equipment.
“The lower power system violation probability in rural areas compared to city and urban areas are likely due to two factors: design capacity per customer and discrete sizes of network equipment.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Urban areas are less sensitive to combinations of household load profiles and EV charging profiles than city areas.
“This suggest that urban areas are less sensitive to combinations of household load profiles and EV charging profiles.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
A significant part of EV charging is likely to take place at residential properties.
“a significant part of EV charging is likely to take place at residential properties [5,6].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [5] Charilaos, 2017
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites [6] Morrissey, 2016, Future standard and fast charging infrastructure planning: an analysis of electric vehicle charging behaviour, Energy Pol source
- Premisecitation
In the low-voltage grid, if residential EV charging coincides with high electricity demand from other household loads, the total demand can cause issues related to thermal capacity or voltage regulations.
“In the low-voltage grid, if the residential charging of EVs coincides with high electricity demand from other household loads, there is a risk that the total demand can cause issues related to thermal capacity or voltage regulations in electricity distribution systems [12,13].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Premisecitation
If EV charging occurs where there is a capacity deficit in the grid, large-scale diffusion of EVs can cause grid issues.
“If the charging occurs where there is a capacity deficit in the grid, a large-scale diffusion of EVs can cause grid issues [ [9][10][11]].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [9] Muratori, 2018, Impact of uncoordinated plug-in electric vehicle charging on residential power demand, Nat Energy source
- cites [10] Habib, 2015, Impact analysis of vehicle-to-grid technology and charging strategies of electric vehicles on distribution networks – a review, J Power Sources source
- cites [11] Steen, 2012, Assessment of electric vehicle charging scenarios based on demographical data, IEEE Trans Smart Grid source
- Interpretationreasoning
The lower sensitivity from price optimized charging strategies is likely due to the smoothing effect from price signals on power demand.
“The lower sensitivity from price optimized charging strategies is likely due to the smoothing effect from price signals on power demand.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
As the number of customers in a low-voltage grid decreases, the designed grid capacity per customer increases due to lower coincidence.
“As the number of customers in a low-voltage grid decreases, the designed grid capacity per customer increases due to the lower coincidence.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The design criteria result in larger available low-voltage grid capacity per customer in low-voltage grids with fewer customers, e.g. in rural areas.
“Thus, the design criteria result in larger available low-voltage grid capacity per customer in low-voltage grids with fewer customers, e.g. in rural areas.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
In SE4, the larger share of other production (solar PV, biogas) leads to less variation in production and therefore lower coincidence between charging events.
“In SE4, the larger share of other production (solar PV, biogas) leads to less variation in production and therefore lower coincidence between charging events.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductreasoning
It is difficult to estimate to what extent this study underestimates the load and thereby also the grid capacity since it is dependent on the share of commercial peak demand.
“It is difficult to estimate to what extent this study underestimates the load and thereby also the grid capacity since it is dependent on the share of commercial peak demand.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
A certain level of variable renewable electricity mix in the energy system benefits power system violations in low-voltage grids.
“This highlights that a certain level of variable renewable electricity mix in the energy system benefits power system violations in low-voltage grids.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Moving to price optimized charging can alleviate some of these problems.
“Moving to price optimized charging can alleviate some of these problems.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Price optimized charging with V2G is likely to have a net negative impact on power system violations in city areas.
“Price optimized charging with V2G is therefore likely to have a net negative impact on power system violations in city areas.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Price optimized charging is likely to have a net positive impact in urban areas.
“Price optimized charging is therefore likely to have a net positive impact in urban areas.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Price optimized charging, with or without V2G, will not be beneficial for all DSOs.
“The results show that price optimized charging, with or without V2G, will not be beneficial for all DSOs.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The reference network model's cost-minimization sizing process results in a better match between demand and capacity when the number of customers is high because power system components are only available in discrete sizes.
“This process results in a better match between demand and capacity when the number of customers is high since power system components are only available in discrete sizes.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
National targets of low-cost renewable energy systems can have very different impact on DSOs depending on their geographical location.
“This indicates that national targets of low-cost renewable energy systems can have very different impact on DSOs depending on their geographical location.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductnone given
Unlike previous studies, we have, through a reference network model, considered all residential low-voltage grids.
“Unlike previous studies, we have, through a reference network model, considered all residential lowvoltage grids.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
In these low-voltage grids, the larger individual power demand in direct charging occurring from a single, or a few, households, has a larger impact.
“In these low-voltage grids, the larger individual power demand in direct charging occurring from a single, or a few, households, has a larger impact.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Since the model is limited to residential electricity usage to estimate low-voltage grid capacity, it underestimates grid capacity in areas where commercial and residential demand is interconnected.
“Since the model is limited to residential electricity usage to estimate low-voltage grid capacity, it underestimates grid capacity in areas where commercial and residential demand is interconnected.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: The reference network model used to design the grids relies on several assumptions, such as average fuse size, geographical distribution of customers and exclusion of non-residential demand.
- Interpretationreasoning
The difference between Gothenburg and Malmö can be explained by the energy mix in SE3 and SE4 respectively.
“The difference between Gothenburg and Malmö can be explained by the energy mix in SE3 and SE4 respectively.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The share of wind power in SE3 is 82%, and 57% in SE4.
- Rests on an assumption: The conditions for electricity production vary significantly between the price areas.
- Rests on an assumption: SE1 has a significant amount of hydropower, while SE2, and to some extent SE1, have significant levels of wind production.
- Interpretationreasoning
The relationship between charging coincidence and low-voltage topology highlights an important difference in the impact of price optimized charging strategies on different low-voltage grids.
“This relationship between charging coincidence and low-voltage topology highlights an important difference in the impact of price optimized charging strategies on different low-voltage grids.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
There is a risk that price optimized charging, with or without V2G, can concentrate EV charging to specific low-cost time periods.
“In these instances there is a risk of that price optimized charging, with or without V2G, can concentrate EV charging to specific low-cost time periods.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The higher share of wind power in SE3 results in larger variations in production compared to SE4.
“The higher share of wind power in SE3 results in larger variations in production compared to SE4.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The share of wind power in SE3 is 82%, and 57% in SE4.
- Interpretationreasoning
Our model would therefore likely estimate the probability of power system violations in Herrljunga to be low.
“Our model would therefore likely estimate the probability of power system violations in Herrljunga to be low.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The Herrljunga low-voltage grids are mostly classified as rural according to our definition, with central Herrljunga classified as urban.
- Study design and conductreasoning
The use of regional price signals employed in this study to control V2G affects the grid violations.
“The use of regional price signals employed in this study to control V2G affects the grid violations.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Price optimized charging, with or without V2G, is more beneficial in urban areas than in city areas.
“Thereby suggesting that price optimized charging, with or without V2G is more beneficial in urban areas than in city areas.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- May combine two claims. 27
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 17
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn urban areas, the overall behavior of low-voltage grid cells is similar to city areas, but with more grid cells that have a 100% probability for power system violations.
“The overall behavior of low-voltage grid cells in urban areas is similar to city areas, but with more grid cells that have a 100% probability for power system violations.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn city areas, only a few low-voltage grid cells show a 100% power system violations probability, and a significant number of low-voltage grid cells show 0% power system violations probability.
“Only a few low-voltage grid cells show a 100% power system violations probability, and a significant number of low-voltage grid cells shows 0% power system violations probability.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe risk of power system violations due to electric vehicle charging is largest in cities, smaller in urban areas, and significantly fewer in rural areas.
“Our results show that the risk of power system violations due to electric vehicle charging are largest in cities and smaller in urban areas, while rural areas show significantly fewer violations.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThis primarily occurs in city centers, where the results from this study show the highest probability for power system violations when integrating a high share of EVs.
“This primarily occurs in city centers, where the results from this study show the highest probability for power system violations when integrating a high share of EVs.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataWith 100% EV integration, there is an average probability of 24% of power system violations in city areas, with a significant number of low-voltage grids that do not experience any power system violations.
“Our results show that with 100% EV integration, there is an average probability of 24% of power system violations in city areas, with a significant number of low-voltage grids that do not experience any power system violations.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: The three charging strategies used in this study were modeled assuming an electricity system without fossil fuels and with a full-scale deployment of EVs (i.e., all passenger vehicles are assumed to be EVs), which add a new household load.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataRural areas are mainly characterized by a difference in distribution but no difference in median deterioration.
“Rural areas are mainly characterized by a difference in distribution but no difference in median deterioration.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn city areas, price optimized charging without V2G causes fewer power system violations, while price optimized charging with V2G produces more power system violations compared with direct charging when using regional price signals for controlling V2G.
“In city areas, our results show that price optimized charging without V2G causes fewer power system violations, while price optimized charging with V2G produces more power system violations compared with direct charging when using regional price signals for controlling V2G.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataPrice optimized charging strategies (with or without V2G) have a larger share of low-voltage grid cells with an improvement or no change (55-80%), and fewer low-voltage grid cells with an increase in urban areas than in city areas.
“The price optimized charging strategies (with or without V2G) have a larger share of low-voltage grid cells with an improvement or no change (55-80%), and fewer low-voltage grid cells with an increase in urban areas than in city areas.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn urban areas, the median improvement is larger than the deterioration (between 2 and 3% units), and the distribution of improvement is larger.
“In urban areas, the opposite is observed, e.g. the median improvement is larger than the deterioration (between 2 and 3% units), and the distribution of improvement is larger.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
FindingreasoningDirect charging has, on average, a lower coincidence factor with other EV charging events, but a higher coincidence factor with non-EV residential load.
“Direct charging has, on average, a lower coincidence factor with other EV charging events, but a higher coincidence factor with non-EV residential load.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThere are large variations due to which price area was considered, with price optimized charging being preferable in SE4, SE3 and SE2 to various degrees, and direct charging being preferable in SE1.
“We also found large variations due to which price area was considered, with price optimized charging being preferable in SE4, SE3 and SE2 to various degrees, and direct charging being preferable in SE1.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn urban areas, both the number of low-voltage grid cells and difference in power system violations shows improvement for the price optimized charging strategies.
“In urban areas, both the number of low-voltage grid cells (Fig. 6) and difference in power system violations (Fig. 7) shows improvement for the price optimized charging strategies.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataFor price optimized charging with V2G, deterioration occurs in the same number of low-voltage grid cells as improvement for city areas, but the deterioration is larger than the improvement.
“We observe that for price optimized charging with V2G deterioration occur in the same number of low-voltage grid cells as improvement for city areas (Fig. 6), but that the deterioration is larger than the improvement (Fig. 7).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn SE1, price optimized charging produces fewer power system violations in 20% of the low-voltage grid cells, while in SE2 the share is 99%.
“In SE1, price optimized charging produces fewer power system violations in 20% of the low-voltage grid cells, while in SE2 the share is 99%.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe impact on low-voltage grids significantly depends on the combinations of driving patterns and electricity usage in the household, but the use of price optimized charging strategies slightly reduces this variation.
“Lastly, we also found that the impact on low-voltage grids significantly depends on the combinations of driving patterns and electricity usage in the household, but that the use of price optimized charging strategies slightly reduces this variation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningStudies limited to single or few distribution grids will only capture certain variations and should be complemented with methods that include national or regional variation in low-voltage grids.
“Studies limited to single or few distribution grids will therefore only capture certain variations, and should therefore be complemented with methods that include the national or regional variation in low-voltage grids.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataDirect charging is preferable in the far north while price optimized charging is preferable in the far south.
“Direct charging is preferable in the far north while price optimized charging is preferable in the far south.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationTo achieve global and European climate targets limiting global warming to 1.5-2°C, the road transport sector needs to reduce its CO2 emissions.
“To achieve global and European climate targets limiting global warming to 1.5-2 • Celsius, the road transport sector needs to reduce its CO 2 emissions [2,3].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [2] 2015
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites [3] 2011
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThere is a lack of knowledge of where grid violations will occur and how these locations are impacted by different charging strategies.
“There is therefore a lack of knowledge of where grid violations will occur, and how these locations are impacted by different charging strategies.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Study design and conductnone givenThe bootstrap estimate will converge to the real estimate for an increasing number of resamples.
“The bootstrap estimate will converge to the real estimate for an increasing number of resamples.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe larger grid capacity per household in urban areas compared to city areas is likely due to a larger share of single-family houses and a lower coincidence factor resulting from lower customer density.
“This is likely due to larger grid capacity per household in the urban areas compared to city areas.”
- Also stated in: § 3.2. Urban · hedged
“The larger grid capacity is partly due to a larger share of singlefamily houses, and due to a lower coincidence factor which is a result of a lower customer density.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Also stated in: § 3.2. Urban · hedged
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Premisenone givenIn previous literature, there are no national assessments of impacts of EV charging strategies on low-voltage electricity distribution, nor any analysis of how these impacts change with geographical location.
“However, in previous literature, there are no national assessments of impacts of EV charging strategies on the low-voltage electricity distribution, nor any analysis how these impacts change with geographical location.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationPassenger vehicles correspond to roughly 90% of all vehicles in Sweden.
“The largest group of vehicles in most countries are passenger vehicles, which corresponds to roughly 90% of all vehicles in Sweden [4].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [4] Statistics Sweden. (n.d.). Fordonsbestånd 2001–2020. Retrieved August 30, 2022, from https://www.scb.se/hitta-statistik/statistik-efter-amne/transporter-och-kommunikationer/vagtrafik/fordon/pong/tabell-och-diagram/fordonsbestand/.
Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductreasoningBecause the model excludes the supplying medium voltage grid, a more conservative upper voltage limit of 5% is used in the low-voltage grids.
“Since our model excludes the supplying medium voltage grid, we use a more conservative upper limit of 5% in the low-voltage grids.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
InterpretationreasoningThe exclusion of non-residential load is likely to cause the model to overestimate grid impacts in areas with a significant non-residential load.
“The exclusion of non-residential load is likely to cause the model to overestimate grid impacts in areas with a significant non-residential load.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Low-voltage grids for commercial and industrial services are connected at separate transformers.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationreasoningDifferences in results could also be due to the use of charging locations.
“Differences in results could also be due to the use of charging locations.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe reduced risk is mainly explained by the large grid capacity for each customer, partly due to low customer density, power system component and requirements on tripping times.
“The reduced risk is mainly explained by the large grid capacity for each customer, partly due to low customer density, power system component and requirements on tripping times.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe cost-minimization sizing process causes a lower capacity margin in densely populated areas, which becomes especially apparent in very sparse areas with only a few customers per low-voltage transformer.
“This causes a lower capacity margin in densely populated areas, which becomes especially apparent in very sparse areas with only a few customers per low-voltage transformer.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe higher production variations lead more EVs to charge during hours of high electricity production, which leads to a high coincidence between charging events.
“The higher production variations lead more EVs to charge during hours of high electricity production, which leads to a high coincidence between charging events.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductreasoningOur analysis has not included whether some of these combinations are more realistic than others.
“Our analysis has not included whether some of these combinations are more realistic than others.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenIf vehicles are used for commuting, this can cause charging to occur less frequently at the home location.
“If vehicles are used for commuting, this can cause charging to occur less frequently at the home location.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationLuthander et al. [16] found that EV charging did reduce the voltage below -5% during winter.
“Luthander et al. [16], who studied the distribution grid in Herrljunga, Sweden, found that EV charging did reduce the voltage below -5% during winter.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [16] Luthander, 2019, Photovoltaics and opportunistic electric vehicle charging in the power system – a case study on a Swedish distribution grid, IET Renew Power Gener source
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningUsing regional price signals only would likely reduce the local benefit of V2G but maximize benefits for the electricity system.
“Using regional price signals only would likely reduce the local benefit of V2G but maximize benefits for the electricity system.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationreasoningIn countries with a different electricity mix, such as a system dominated by solar power, the price-optimized charging strategy is likely to allocate the charging to hours with high output from solar power (e.g., middle of the day).
“In countries with a different electricity mix, such as a system dominated by solar power, instead of a mix of wind and hydro power as in Sweden, the priceoptimized charging strategy is likely to allocate the charging to hours with high output from solar power (e.g., middle of the day).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationPrevious studies have found reductions in grid violation from V2G [10], but have used other control signals, such as voltage and frequency.
“Previous studies have found reductions in grid violation from V2G [10], but have used other control signals, such as voltage and frequency.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [10] Habib, 2015, Impact analysis of vehicle-to-grid technology and charging strategies of electric vehicles on distribution networks – a review, J Power Sources source
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe coincidence between EV charging and household demand is higher for direct charging but lower for price optimized charging.
“The coincidence between EV charging and household demand is therefore higher for direct charging but lower for price optimized charging.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
InterpretationreasoningThis might indirectly increase the probability of power system violations.
“This might indirectly increase the probability of power system violations.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Solar-dominated systems tend also to rely on more V2G to balance the grid due to intraday fluctuations.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationreasoningThese differences would impact the probability for limitation due to voltage variations.
“These differences would impact the probability for limitation due to voltage variations.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationSteen et al. found that the grid could handle 50%-100% of EV integration without grid issues.
“Steen et al., who analyzed low-voltage grids in Gothenburg, found that the grid could handle 50%-100% of EV integration without grid issues.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Steen et al.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationAccording to Steen et al., thermal capacity constraints were the main limiting factor.
“According to Steen et al. thermal capacity constraints were the main limiting factor”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Steen et al.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenIt is not evident that a high share of solar PV and reduced home charging would lead to increased power system violations.
“It is not evident that a high share of solar PV and reduced home charging would lead to increased power system violations.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningIn areas with a high share of commercial electricity usage, our model would likely overestimate the power system violations, which can explain why our results are more conservative than previous case studies.
“In areas with a high share of commercial electricity usage, our model would likely overestimate the power system violations, which can explain why our results are more conservative than previous case studies.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
The authors state this as an assumption.
All passenger vehicles are electrified in the scenario.
“we assume a scenario where all passenger vehicles are electrified.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Low-voltage grids for commercial and industrial services are connected at separate transformers.
“The reference network model includes residential customers and assume that low-voltage grids for commercial and industrial services are connected at separate transformers.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Each household has a low-voltage grid connection.
“We assume that each household has a low-voltage grid connection.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Individual driving patterns will not change during a large-scale EV adoption.
“Since the measurements were done on combustion vehicles, we assume that individual driving patterns will not change during a large-scale EV adoption.”
The paper relies on this without support.
There are no known datasets that have quality data for both household electricity demand and measured driving demand.
“The household load profiles and charging profiles originate from independent and separate measurement campaigns, i.e., there are no known datasets that have quality data for both household electricity demand as well as measured driving demand.”
The paper relies on this without support.
There is a lack of data regarding electricity load profile and charging profile from the same households.
“There is a lack of data regarding electricity load profile and charging profile from the same households.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The three charging strategies used in this study were modeled assuming an electricity system without fossil fuels and with a full-scale deployment of EVs (i.e., all passenger vehicles are assumed to be EVs), which add a new household load.
“The three charging strategies used in this study were modeled assuming an electricity system without fossil fuels and with a full-scale deployment of EVs (i.e., all passenger vehicles are assumed to be EVs), which add a new household load.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
This study assumes only home charging.
“This study assumes only home charging, while Steen et al. used home and work charging.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The reference network model used to design the grids relies on several assumptions, such as average fuse size, geographical distribution of customers and exclusion of non-residential demand.
“The reference network model used to design the grids relies on several assumptions, such as average fuse size, geographical distribution of customers and exclusion of non-residential demand.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The share of wind power in SE3 is 82%, and 57% in SE4.
“The share of wind power in SE3 is 82%, and 57% in SE4.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The conditions for electricity production vary significantly between the price areas.
“The conditions for electricity production vary significantly between the price areas.”
The paper relies on this without support.
SE1 has a significant amount of hydropower, while SE2, and to some extent SE1, have significant levels of wind production.
“SE1 has a significant amount of hydropower, while SE2, and to some extent SE1, have significant levels of wind production.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Solar-dominated systems tend also to rely on more V2G to balance the grid due to intraday fluctuations.
“Furthermore, solar-dominated systems tend also to rely on more V2G to balance the grid due to intraday fluctuations.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The Herrljunga low-voltage grids are mostly classified as rural according to our definition, with central Herrljunga classified as urban.
“The Herrljunga low-voltage grids are mostly classified as rural according to our definition, with central Herrljunga classified as urban.”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Driving-data citation [31] points to a census source
MinorThe methods cite [31] for GPS-tracked vehicles, but reference 31 is a Eurostat census entry.
“The charging profiles are based on 10-min driving profiles and are taken from a dataset of 429 GPS-tracked combustion engine vehicles in western Sweden [31].”
“31. Eurostat. (n.d.). Census 2011. CENSUSHUB2. Retrieved August 30, 2022, from https://ec.europa.eu/CensusHub2/query.do?step=selectHyperCube&qhc=false.”
Figure A1 is described as two different maps
MinorThe results identify Figure A1 as a map of the demographic classification, but its caption identifies it as vehicle-ownership data.
“Figure A1 in the appendix shows a visual representation of the classification scheme in western Sweden.”
“Figure: A1 Fig. A1 . Fig. A1.Data on vehicle ownership per household and municipality in Sweden for 2018.Data from Statistics Sweden[36,37].”
Conflicting accounts of voltage violations in the Luthander study
MinorThe introduction says the grids in that study experienced no voltage issues after EV charging was added, while the discussion says charging reduced voltage below −5%.
“Luthander et al. [16] analyzed 338 low-voltage grids in Herrljunga in southern Sweden and found that when adding EV charging the low-voltage grids still did not experience any voltage issues.”
“Luthander et al. [16], who studied the distribution grid in Herrljunga, Sweden, found that EV charging did reduce the voltage below -5% during winter.”
Electricity-model citation [39] points to household-size data
MinorThe methods attribute the charging profiles to modeling by Taljegard et al. [39], but reference 39 is a Statistics Sweden household-size source.
“The modelling by Taljegard et al. [39] provides the charging profiles, but the model does not consider congestions in the regional or local grids.”
“39. Statistics Sweden. Antal personer per hushåll efter region och boendeform. 2018.”
Net-load profile changes symbols between definition and use
MinorEquation (5) defines the net-load profile as P J, but the subsequent description calls it P HH, which was defined as the average residential load profile.
“Power system impact is then calculated using the net load profile (P HH ).”
“To calculate the net load profile (P J ), the household load profiles are combined with charging profiles for each point J along the longest feeder, and are calculated as”
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City energy transitions: Modelling policy alignments with sectoral integration at sub-city levels
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Avoid, Shift or Improve Passenger Transport? Impacts on the Energy SystemPreprint
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Nationwide geographical data can help to overcome network challenges in reaching net zero
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Impact of electric vehicles on low-voltage distribution networks: A critical review
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- Authors
- Hartvigsson, E., Taljegard, M., Odenberger, M., & Chen, P.
- Corresponding author
- Hartvigsson, Elias
- Venue
- Energy
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2022-12
- Volume
- 261
- Pages
- 125180
- ISSN
- 0360-5442 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4292755995
- Cited by
- 49
- References
- 29
- Citations by year
- 2026: 11 · 2025: 16 · 2024: 16 · 2023: 6
- FWCI
- 2.54
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Energy (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Electric Vehicles and Infrastructure
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Smart Grid Energy Management
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Optimal Power Flow Distribution
- Keywords
- electric vehicle charging, low-voltage distribution networks, home charging, charging strategies, direct charging, residential areas, urban-rural differences, distribution system operators, renewable energy systems, electric mobility
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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