Privacy-preserving blockchain-based federated learning for traffic flow prediction
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Adding noise on raw data by local differential privacy severely reduces model accuracy.
“Reference [23] added noise on the raw data by local differential privacy, but it reduced the model accuracy severely.”
From A Blockchain‐Based Federated Learning Method for Smart Healthcare (2021) · cites this paper as [23]
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“To address these data privacy concerns, several FL frameworks were proposed in the literature [13], [16], [18], [19], [20], [21], [22] where only trained models are shared with the participating entities instead of the raw datasets, thus preserving data confidentiality and utility while upholding…”
MethodEdge Device Identification Based on Federated Learning and Network Traffic Feature Engineering
He, Z., Yin, J., Wang, Y., Gui, G., Adebisi, B., Ohtsuki, T. O., Gacanin, H., & Sari, H. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Cognitive Communications and Networking · doi:10.1109/tccn.2021.3101239 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“For instance, Qi et al. [32] proposed a consortium blockchain-based federated learning framework to update the model from distributed vehicles and then store on the blockchain, the experimental results show that it can effectively prevent data poisoning attacks and improve privacy protection.”
BackgroundA Review of the Key Technology in a Blockchain Building Decentralized Trust Platform
Deng, W., Huang, T., & Wang, H. (2022) · Mathematics · doi:10.3390/math11010101 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Exploring privacy mechanisms and metrics in federated learning
Shenoy, D., Bhat, R., & Prakash, K. (2025) · Artificial Intelligence Review · doi:10.1007/s10462-025-11170-5 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Definition of a novel federated learning approach to reduce communication costs
Paragliola, G., & Coronato, A. (2021) · Expert Systems with Applications · doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2021.116109 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Blockchain and Federated Edge Learning for Privacy-Preserving Mobile Crowdsensing
Hu, Q., Wang, Z., Xu, M., & Cheng, X. (2021) · IEEE Internet of Things Journal · doi:10.1109/jiot.2021.3128155 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
A Hierarchical Incentive Design Toward Motivating Participation in Coded Federated Learning
Ng, J. S., Lim, W. Y. B., Xiong, Z., Cao, X., Niyato, D. T., Leung, C., & Kim, D. I. (2021) · IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications · doi:10.1109/jsac.2021.3126057 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Salim, S., Turnbull, B., & Moustafa, N. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Computational Social Systems · doi:10.1109/tcss.2021.3134463 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“2) FL Task Assignment Phase: In a typical blockchain-based FL configuration, the entities’ responsibilities toward the FL task and the blockchain are assigned each round either randomly (such as with [36]) or based on the amount of reputation that they hold in the blockchain (as per [37]).”
BackgroundWang, W., Wang, Y., Huang, Y., Mu, C., Sun, Z., Tong, X., & Cai, Z. (2022) · Computer Networks · doi:10.1016/j.comnet.2022.109206 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Yuan, X., Chen, J., Zhang, N., Fang, X., & Liu, D. (2021) · China Communications · doi:10.23919/jcc.2021.07.010 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Dewangan, N. K., Chandrakar, P., Kumari, S., & Rodrigues, J. J. P. C. (2022) · Multimedia Tools and Applications · doi:10.1007/s11042-022-13915-8 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Federated learning for big data: A survey on opportunities, applications, and future directions
Gadekallu, T. R., Pham, Q., Huynh‐The, T., Feng, H., Fang, K., Pandya, S., Liyanage, M., Wang, W. W., & Nguyen, T. T. (2025) · Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.engappai.2025.113614 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Whig, P., Sharma, R., Yathiraju, N., Jain, A., & Sharma, S. (2024) · doi:10.1002/9781394219230.ch16 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Applying Federated Learning in Software-Defined Networks: A Survey
Ma, X., Liao, L., Li, Z., Lai, X.-R., & Zhang, M. (2022) · Symmetry · doi:10.3390/sym14020195 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“Qi et al. [117] introduced blockchain-based FL in IoVs, where workers voted a miner to supervise the aggregation in each iteration.”
BackgroundBlockchain-Based Decentralized Model Aggregation for Cross-Silo Federated Learning in Industry 4.0
Ranathunga, T., McGibney, A., Rea, S., & Bharti, S. (2022) · IEEE Internet of Things Journal · doi:10.1109/jiot.2022.3218704 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“Unlike [4] and [6], an HE-based solution is employed for secure model aggregation without exposing the local model parameters of the committee nodes.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialFed-NTP: A Federated Learning Algorithm for Network Traffic Prediction in VANET
Sepasgozar, S. S., & Pierre, S. (2022) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2022.3221970 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“…the aim of traffic estimation were proposed in [11], a selective model aggregation based on FL for classification problem was proposed in [12], Privacy-preserving blockchain-based FL was proposed in [13] for predicting traffic flow and other hybrid methods based on FL were proposed in [14] and [15].”
MethodUAV-based MEC-assisted automated traffic management scheme using blockchain
Masuduzzaman, M., Islam, A., Sadia, K., & Shin, S. Y. (2022) · Future Generation Computer Systems · doi:10.1016/j.future.2022.04.018 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Blockchain-empowered secure federated learning system: Architecture and applications
Yu, F., Lin, H. D., Wang, X., Yassine, A., & Hossain, M. S. (2022) · Computer Communications · doi:10.1016/j.comcom.2022.09.008 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Self-citationMoore, E., Imteaj, A., Rezapour, S., & Amini, M. H. (2023) · IEEE Internet of Things Journal · doi:10.1109/jiot.2023.3313055 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“Qi et al. [25] developed existing traffic flow prediction methods based on centralized machine learning, which require gathering raw data for model training, and involve serious privacy exposure risks.”
BackgroundInfluentialVerifiable Federated Learning With Privacy-Preserving Data Aggregation for Consumer Electronics
Xie, H., Wang, Y., Ding, Y., Yang, C., Zheng, H., & Qin, B. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Consumer Electronics · doi:10.1109/tce.2023.3323206 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“Due to the diverse requirements of federated learning in different scenarios, various solutions have been proposed to address specific challenges within federated learning, such as industrial IoT [8], vehicular networks [9], drones [10], and recommendation systems [11].”
BackgroundNg, J. S., Lim, W. Y. B., Xiong, Z., Cao, X., Jin, J., Niyato, D. T., Leung, C., & Miao, C. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Parallel and Distributed Systems · doi:10.1109/tpds.2021.3139039 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“…remains the predominant approach for global model aggregation in FL, node failures, communication bottlenecks, and the single point of failure due to the computation and communication inefficiencies have proven to be key bottlenecks that impede the effective and scalable implementation of FL [10].”
BackgroundAl-Huthaifi, R., Li, T., Al‐Huda, Z., & Li, C. (2024) · Information Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.ins.2024.120482 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Fuzzy Consensus With Federated Learning Method in Medical Systems
Poap, D. (2021) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2021.3125799 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“Another issue which is improved in it is the privacy of models which can be improved and make the data, and models much safer is blockchain [15], [16].”
BackgroundOnline Spatio-Temporal Correlation-Based Federated Learning for Traffic Flow Forecasting
Liu, Q., Sun, S., Liu, M., Wang, Y., & Gao, B. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems · doi:10.1109/tits.2024.3429533 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“A great variety of methods have been proposed to increase the accuracy of traffic flow forecasting.”
MethodBFRT: Blockchained Federated Learning for Real-time Traffic Flow Prediction
Meese, C., Chen, H., Asif, S. A., Li, W., Shen, C.-C., & Nejad, M. (2022) · 2022 22nd IEEE International Symposium on Cluster, Cloud and Internet Computing (CCGrid) · doi:10.1109/ccgrid54584.2022.00041 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“• Unlike existing works [5] [17] [18], we design a real-time FL process where the data shards for each participant (e.g., RSU) are distinct and private.”
A Survey on Blockchain-Based Federated Learning
Wu, L., Ruan, W., Hu, J., & He, Y. (2023) · Future Internet · doi:10.3390/fi15120400 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Chen, S., Liu, Y., Zhang, Q., Shao, Z., & Wang, Z. (2025) · Advanced Intelligent Systems · doi:10.1002/aisy.202400898 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Artificial Intelligence techniques to mitigate cyber-attacks within vehicular networks: Survey
Haddaji, A., Ayed, S., & Fourati, L. C. (2022) · Computers & Electrical Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.compeleceng.2022.108460 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
A Survey of the Social Internet of Vehicles: Secure Data Issues, Solutions, and Federated Learning
Xing, L., Zhao, P., Gao, J., Wu, H., & Ma, H. (2022) · IEEE Intelligent Transportation Systems Magazine · doi:10.1109/mits.2022.3190036 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“…[86] High security High efficiency High computational communication Autonomous-based blockchain–FL mechanism [88] FL-based consortium blockchain [89] DL FL-based deep learning [92] High robustness Generalization ability Highly dynamic data Unreliable Federated deep reinforcement learning [95]…”
BackgroundA Survey on Blockchain-Based Federated Learning and Data Privacy
Chhetri, B., Gopali, S., Olapojoye, R., Sani, S. D., & Namin, A. S. (2023) · IEEE Annual International Computer Software and Applications Conference (COMPSAC) · doi:10.1109/compsac57700.2023.00199 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“[27] BFL- Traffic Flow Prediction (TFP) Slower convergence rate due to its decentralized learning paradigm and model aggregation step, as opposed to the SAE model’s centralized learning.”
BackgroundResultWijesekara, P. A. D. S. N., & Gunawardena, S. (2023) · Network · doi:10.3390/network3030017 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Asynchronous Federated Learning System Based on Permissioned Blockchains
Wang, R., & Tsai, W. (2022) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s22041672 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“[33] applied local differential privacy techniques to blockchain federation learning to protect data privacy in the industrial Internet and smart transportation domains by adding noisy perturbations to the raw data.”
BackgroundBlockchain-Empowered AI for 6G-Enabled Internet of Vehicles
Ayaz, F., Sheng, Z., Tian, D., Nekovee, M., & Saeed, N. H. (2022) · Electronics · doi:10.3390/electronics11203339 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“, inaccurate traffic flow estimation in [15], inaccurate block addition in [16], and the percentage of nodes not receiving the message in our solution.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialExploiting Blockchain to Make AI Trustworthy: A Software Development Lifecycle View
Zhang, P., Ding, S., & Zhao, Q. (2023) · ACM Computing Surveys · doi:10.1145/3614424 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“For another example, the joint learning scheme for traffic prediction based on the privacy protection blockchain [90] can effectively ensure the privacy of the model.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialMultimodal Transport Demand Forecasting via Federated Learning
Li, C., & Liu, W. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems · doi:10.1109/tits.2023.3325936 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“• FedGRU [47]: FedGRU is the combination of GRU and the basic Federated Learning framework, which is used in experiments to predict demands of multiple clients simultaneously.”
MethodAFLPC: An Asynchronous Federated Learning Privacy-Preserving Computing Model Applied to 5G-V2X
Huang, J., Xu, C., Ji, Z., Xiao, S., Liu, T., Ma, N., & Zhou, Q. (2022) · Security and Communication Networks · doi:10.1155/2022/9334943 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“[14] use local differential privacy technology to add noise to the original training data to protect privacy, but it will cause a greater loss of model accuracy.”
BackgroundRetractedLightweight Privacy and Security Computing for Blockchained Federated Learning in IoT
Fan, M., Ji, K., Zhang, Z., Yu, H., & Sun, G. (2023) · IEEE Internet of Things Journal · doi:10.1109/jiot.2023.3267112 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Asqah, M. A., & Moulahi, T. (2023) · Future Internet · doi:10.3390/fi15060203 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“Moreover, the work of [31] implemented federated learning into Blockchain to collaboratively train a traffic flow prediction (TFP) system of a neural network (NN) learning model.”
MethodFL-ODP: An Optimized Differential Privacy Enabled Privacy Preserving Federated Learning
Iqbal, M., Tariq, A., Adnan, M., Din, I. U., & Qayyum, T. (2023) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2023.3325396 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“Another approach involves a trustworthy aggregator managing the privacy exposure to ensure the model’s performance privacy [13].”
BackgroundBibliometric Analysis of the Blockchain Scientific Evolution: 2014–2020
Luo, J., Hu, Y., & Bai, Y. (2021) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2021.3092192 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“Federated learning (where data is kept on the owner’s device and updates to the model are summarized through security protocols) is the latest technology to support secure multi-party machine learning [86], has recently been introduced as an efficient solution for achieving privacy protection [87].”
BackgroundToward Crowdsourced Transportation Mode Identification: A Semisupervised Federated Learning Approach
Zhang, C., Zhu, Y., Markos, C., Yu, S., & Yu, J. J. Q. (2021) · IEEE Internet of Things Journal · doi:10.1109/jiot.2021.3132056 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“Successful applications can be seen in urban traffic forecasting [8], [9], rail traffic control [10], vehicular networking [11], and others.”
BackgroundMohammed, M. A., Lakhan, A. R., Abdulkareem, K. H., Ghani, M. K. A., Marhoon, H. A., Nedoma, J., & Martínek, R. (2023) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e21639 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Al-Huthaifi, R., Li, T., Al‐Huda, Z., Huang, W., Luo, Z., & Xie, P. (2024) · Knowledge-Based Systems · doi:10.1016/j.knosys.2024.112029 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Han, B., Li, B., Jurdak, R., Zhang, P., Zhang, H. Y., Feng, P., & Yuen, C. (2025) · IEEE Internet of Things Journal · doi:10.1109/jiot.2024.3524632 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“To address privacy concerns, Qi et al. [41] proposed a consortium blockchain-based FL framework with DP for secure traffic flow prediction.”
InfluentialBlockchain consensus mechanisms comparison in fog computing: A systematic review
Alzoubi, Y. I., & Mishra, A. (2024) · ICT Express · doi:10.1016/j.icte.2024.02.008 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Simultaneous Fault Diagnosis and Size Estimation Using Multitask Federated Incremental Learning
Zhong, K., Ding, Z., Zhang, H., Chen, H., & Zio, E. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Reliability · doi:10.1109/tr.2024.3402308 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“Recently, Sheller et al. [8] proposed an intrusion detection method for an industrial network physical system based on FL. Qi et al. [9] adopted a novel FL scheme and applied it to the next-word prediction task of smartphone virtual keyboard.”
IoV security and privacy survey: issues, countermeasures, and challenges
Haddaji, A., Ayed, S., & Fourati, L. C. (2024) · The Journal of Supercomputing · doi:10.1007/s11227-024-06269-5 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Shen, X., Chen, J., Zhu, S., & Yan, R. (2023) · Expert Systems with Applications · doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2023.122302 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Meese, C., Chen, H., Li, W., Lee, D. H., Guo, H., Shen, C., & Nejad, M. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems · doi:10.1109/tits.2024.3391053 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“• To study online FL in ITS, contrary to existing works, [15], [22], [23], we design an online FL process that considers the location-specific and time-dependent datasets of each client.”
MethodA state-of-the-art on federated learning for vehicular communications
Drissi, M. (2023) · Vehicular Communications · doi:10.1016/j.vehcom.2023.100709 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
FedGCN: A Federated Graph Convolutional Network for Privacy-Preserving Traffic Prediction
Hu, N., Liang, W., Zhang, D., Xie, K., Li, K., & Zomaya, A. Y. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Sustainable Computing · doi:10.1109/tsusc.2024.3395350 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Multi-factor embedding GNN-based traffic flow prediction considering intersection similarity
Zhong, R., Hu, B., Wang, F., Feng, Y., Li, Z., Song, X., Wang, Y., Lou, S., & Tan, J. (2024) · Neurocomputing · doi:10.1016/j.neucom.2024.129193 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
An intelligent traffic prediction framework for 5G network using SDN and fusion learning
Selvi, K. T., & Thamilselvan, R. (2022) · Peer-to-Peer Networking and Applications · doi:10.1007/s12083-021-01280-6 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“Federated learning [5] finds its application in many domains next word prediction, emoji prediction, prediction models [6] in health care to ensure the privacy of the patient data and many more.”
BackgroundMethodRobust ensemble method for short-term traffic flow prediction
Yan, H., Fu, L., Qi, Y. F., Yu, D., & Ye, Q. (2022) · Future Generation Computer Systems · doi:10.1016/j.future.2022.03.034 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Self-citationQi, Y., Wu, J., Bashir, A. K., Lin, X., Yang, W., & Alshehri, M. D. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems · doi:10.1109/tits.2022.3215326 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“In [30], a blockchain-based FL framework was proposed to tackle the urban traffic forecasting issue.”
Self-citationBFKD: Blockchain-Based Federated Knowledge Distillation for Aviation Internet of Things
Deng, W., Li, X., Xu, J., Li, W., Zhu, G., & Zhao, H. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Reliability · doi:10.1109/tr.2024.3474710 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“[28]introduceda blockchain-enabled decentralized FL mechanism that verifies clientmodelupdates,ensuringthatonlytrustednodesparticipate inaggregation.”
Self-citationLarge Language Models for Mobility Analysis in Transportation Systems: A Survey on Forecasting Tasks
Zhang, Z., Sun, Y., Wang, Z., Nie, Y., Ma, X., Li, R., Sun, P., & Ban, X. J. (2025) · Transportation Research Record Journal of the Transportation Research Board · doi:10.1177/03611981251367699 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“…another privacy-preserving blockchain-based framework for traffic flow prediction has been proposed, which stores model updates from distributed vehicles on the blockchain and leverages a differential privacy method with a noise-adding mechanism to enhance location privacy protection ( 128 ).”
Federated clustering for recognizing driving styles from private trajectories
Lü, L. T., Lin, Y., Wen, Y., Zhu, J., & Xiong, S. (2022) · Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.engappai.2022.105714 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Match Maximization of Vehicle-to-Vehicle Energy Charging With Double-Sided Auction
Yassine, A., & Hossain, M. S. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems · doi:10.1109/tits.2023.3265870 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“The system has the capability to track the EVs via a communication link (e.g., VANET, 5G, LoRaWAN, etc.) while assuring location privacy similar to the studies in [31], [32], and [33].”
BackgroundSelf-citation
- Authors
- Qi, Y., Hossain, M. S., Nie, J., & Li, X.
- Affiliations
- University of Electronic Science and Technology of China (CN)
- King Saud University (SA)
- Nanyang Technological University (SG)
- Corresponding author
- Hossain, M. Shamim
- Venue
- Future Generation Computer Systems
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2021-04
- Volume
- 117
- Pages
- 328-337
- ISSN
- 0167-739X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W3112885687
- Cited by
- 339
- References
- 55
- Citations by year
- 2026: 31 · 2025: 49 · 2024: 99 · 2023: 70 · 2022: 60 · 2021: 30
- FWCI
- 15.47
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Future Generation Computer Systems (publishedVersion)
- DR-NTU (Nanyang Technological University) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
- Key Project in Higher Education of Guangdong Province, China (2020ZDZX3030)
- Young Innovation Talents Project in Higher Education of Guangdong Province, China (2018KQNCX333)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Privacy-Preserving Technologies in Data
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Information Systems › Blockchain Technology Applications and Security
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Cryptography and Data Security
- Keywords
- traffic flow prediction, federated learning, blockchain, consortium blockchain, differential privacy, data poisoning, privacy preservation, intelligent transportation systems, noise addition
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