The DOI matches its Crossref record; 114 of the 115 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Eyes and IQ: A meta-analysis of the relationship between intelligence and “Reading the Mind in the Eyes”
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“Despite its widespread application, this measure has been criticized for its association with verbal intelligence (Baker et al., 2014), concerns that it reflects emotion recognition rather than ToM (Oakley et al., 2016; see also Mar, 2018b), and that it might not be sensitive to interindividual differences within neurotypical populations (Black, 2019).”
From The effects of reading narrative fiction on social and moral cognition (2021) · cites this paper as Baker et al., 2014
Citations
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Items 101–173 of 173
Gillespie, S. M., Kongerslev, M., Bo, S., & Abu-Akel, A. M. (2020) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-020-01567-8 · Cited by 9
A new look at the relations between attachment and intelligence
Giudice, M. D., & Haltigan, J. D. (2022) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2022.101054 · Cited by 8
“…demanding and depend significantly on the child ’ s general intellective resources; for example, mindreading and perspective-taking skills are significantly correlated with IQ in both children and adults (e.g., Baker et al., 2014; Kurdek, 1977; Rajkumar et al., 2008; Tarshis & Shore, 1991).”
BackgroundCallous–Unemotional Traits and Intelligence in Children with Externalizing Behavioral Problems
Fantozzi, P., Muratori, P., Levantini, V., Mammarella, I. C., Masi, G., Milone, A., Petrucci, A., Ricci, F., Tacchi, A., Cristofani, C., et al. (2022) · Children · doi:10.3390/children9111768 · Cited by 7
“The two facets of empathy work independently, but they also interact with each other, so we could speculate that specific treatment of children’s verbal abilities could improve cognitive empathy [21,36], which in turn could ameliorate affective empathy competencies.”
BackgroundSmogorzewska, J., Szumski, G., Bosacki, S., Grygiel, P., & Osterhaus, C. (2023) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2023.105806 · Cited by 8
Cognitive gadgets: A provocative but flawed manifesto
Giudice, M. D. (2019) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x19001134 · Cited by 6
Gignac, G. E., Palermo, R., Bothe, E., Walker, D. L., & Wilmer, J. B. (2023) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/17470218231203679 · Cited by 7
“Therefore, on the basis of previous face processing and intelligence research (Baker et al., 2014; Gignac et al., 2016 but see Wilmer et al., 2014), and the positive manifold more generally (Jensen, 1998), we hypothesised that verbal ability would correlate positively with both face perception…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialBaksh, R. A., MacPherson, S. E., Bonnie Auyeung, B., Pal, S., & Abrahams, S. (2023) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000929 · Cited by 6
Understanding the relationship between general intelligence and socio-cognitive abilities in humans
Fernández‐Berrocal, P., Cabello, R., & Gutiérrez‐Cobo, M. J. (2017) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x1600162x · Cited by 6
Understanding Atypical Social Behaviour Using Social Cognitive Theory
Livingston, L. A., & Happe, F. G. E. (2021) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198843290.003.0007 · Cited by 6
Noble, A. J., Robinson, A., & Marson, A. G. (2016) · Behavioural Neurology · doi:10.1155/2016/5025174 · Cited by 5
Warrier, V., Grasby, K. L., Uzefovsky, F., Toro, R., Smith, P. L., Chakrabarti, B., Khadake, J., Mawbey-Adamson, E., Litterman, N. K., Hottenga, J., et al. (2016) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/081844 · Cited by 5
Inzunza, M., Brown, G., Stenlund, T., & Wikström, C. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.907610 · Cited by 5
“org ability of a respondent to correctly identify the emotional states of others (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001; Baker et al., 2014).”
BackgroundMisailidi, P., & Chaliassos, E. (2024) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2024.2434146 · Cited by 4
“For example, the RMET has been criticised for being related to IQ, both verbal and performance (Baker et al., 2014).”
Einflussfaktoren auf die Theory of Mind-Entwicklung im Vorschulalter im Rahmen Früher Hilfen
Dähne, V., Klein, A. M., Jungmann, T., Sierau, S., & Kliem, S. (2018) · Praxis der Kinderpsychologie und Kinderpsychiatrie · doi:10.13109/prkk.2018.67.5.442 · Cited by 4
Shame and Theory-of-Mind Predicts Rule-Following Behavior
Ridinger, G. (2020) · Games · doi:10.3390/g11030036 · Cited by 4
Multilingualism and mentalizing abilities in adults
Chung-Fat-Yim, A., Lo, R. F., & Mar, R. A. (2022) · Bilingualism Language and Cognition · doi:10.1017/s1366728922000669 · Cited by 4
“Reading the Mind in the Eyes” Is Associated with Top-Down Visual Attention
Malaei, F., Sohrabi, A., & Jahanitabesh, A. (2020) · Activitas Nervosa Superior · doi:10.1007/s41470-020-00075-z · Cited by 5
Winters, D. E., & Sakai, J. T. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/stwj8 · Cited by 4
A multi-site psychometric evaluation of the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test – Revised
Hafner, R. M., Johnson, B. N., Tone, E. B., Kivity, Y., Levy, K. N., & Bedwell, J. S. (2025) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2025.113526 · Cited by 4
Theory of Mind, Empathy, and Eudaimonic Media Preferences
Lapierre, M. A., & Choi, E.-J. (2025) · Media Psychology · doi:10.1080/15213269.2025.2515382 · Cited by 4
“Previous research has shown that ToM is significantly associated with intellectual ability (Baker et al., 2014; Smogorzewska et al., 2018); as such, participant GPA was included as a covariate in the analyses with participants asked about their approximate GPA (1 = less than 1.0, 2 = 1.0 to 2.0, 3…”
InfluentialHsu, B., Hsu, Y., & Weng, C. (2025) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.70132 · Cited by 3
“…including age, gender, body mass index (BMI), degree of pretest fatigue, full-scale intelligence quotient (FSIQ), and emotional states have been shown to have an impact on physiological activation (Shaffer and Ginsberg 2017) and ToM ability (Baker et al. 2014; Bora and Berk 2016; Baez et al. 2023).”
Vilenskaya, G. A., & Lebedeva, E. I. (2021) · Advances in intelligent systems and computing · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-71637-0_7 · Cited by 3
Toloza-Muñoz, J., González-Mendoza, J., Castillo, R. D., & Morales-Bader, D. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.03.25.007575 · Cited by 3
“The variability in scores could be explained by verbal IQ level, 41 which contributes significantly to the performance variation in the test [30, 31].”
BackgroundHsu, B., & Weng, C. (2025) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2025.113290 · Cited by 2
Iyer, L., Dissanayake, I., & Bedeley, R. T. (2017) · ACM SIGCPR Conference on Computer Personnel Research (SIGCPR) · doi:10.1145/3084381.3084415 · Cited by 2
Mentalization and cognitive skills in men with Klinefelter syndrome versus non-clinical controls
Fjermestad, K. W., Bergh, N., Fleten, S. K., Huster, R. J., Gravholt, C. H., & Solbakk, A. (2023) · Psychiatry Research Communications · doi:10.1016/j.psycom.2023.100116 · Cited by 3
Koo, S. J., Kim, Y. J., Seo, E., Park, H. Y., Min, J. E., Bang, M., Park, J. Y., Lee, E. M., & An, S. K. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.863763 · Cited by 1
The relation of depressive symptoms to theory of mind in adults
Nestor, B. A., Liu, Q., Sutherland, S. L., & Cole, D. A. (2023) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2023.07.018 · Cited by 2
Autistic and non-autistic adults use discourse context to determine a speaker’s intention to request
Frost, F., Nagano, M., & Zane, E. R. (2024) · Cognitive Processing · doi:10.1007/s10339-024-01229-6 · Cited by 2
“Several studies have indicated that performance on the RME is more related to factors such as intelligence, vocabulary, and emotional recognition, rather than mentalizing (Baker et al. 2014; Oakley et al. 2016; Olderbak et al. 2015).”
Mayn, A., & Demberg, V. (2026) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0339899 · Cited by 1
“…be related to intelligence and executive function: previous work has observed a weak positive relationship between RMET and SST and fluid intelligence measures (RPM, as well as standardized tests), suggesting that mentalizing as measured by these tasks draws on general cognitive abilities [86,87].”
Reconceptualizing consciousness as an intelligence: A five-level model of access consciousness
Gignac, G. E. (2026) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2026.102039 · Cited by 1
Consequences: Social Development
Miller, S. A. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197573174.003.0007 · Cited by 1
Lee, V. K., Khaw, M. W., Kranton, R. E., & Huettel, S. A. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-01493-2 · Cited by 1
“…images and complex vocabulary response options that allow individuals with higher IQ, education, and specific cultural background to perform well 20,26 , the GERT-S offers dynamic visual and audio cues from an actor and asks participants to select from 14 common emotions that vary in valance and…”
Parsing Interactive Social Cognition: Mentalizing Accuracy and Propensity in Dyadic Contexts
Pradhan, L., & Warnell, K. R. (2026) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/cogs.70179 · Cited by 1
“…mentalizing assessments (e.g., Kittel et al., 2022), in spite of criticism of both its psychometric properties and its ability to capture mental state understanding (e.g., Baker, Peterson, Pulos, & Kirkland, 2014; Higgins, Ross, Langdon, & Polito, 2023, Higgins, Savalei, Polito, & Ross, 2026).”
Revisión bibliométrica sobre el estudio de la Teoría de la Mente y la Personalidad
Osorio, H. D. L., & Arredondo, N. H. L. (2019) · Diversitas · doi:10.15332/22563067.3906 · Cited by 3
Wright, B. C., & Wright, B. A. L. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.621457 · Cited by 1
“Cognitive domains such as memory, executive functions and language have been confirmed to be important in ToM (Carlson and Moses, 2001; Kaland et al., 2005; Gokcen et al., 2009; Moran, 2013; Baker et al., 2014; Mary et al., 2016; Demetrious and Spanoudis, 2018).”
BackgroundHeterogeneity of research results: New perspectives on psychological science
Linden, A. H. (2019) · Northumbria Research Link (Northumbria University) · Cited by 1
Select on IntelligencePreprint
Schmidt, F. L., & Oh, I. (2021) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3961855 · Cited by 1
Schmidt, F. L., & Oh, I. (2023) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781394320769.ch1 · Cited by 2
Fischer, A. L. (2015) · Summit (Simon Fraser University)
Interrelation between social and general cognition: current state of problem
Malyukova, D. A. (2016) · Counseling Psychology and Psychotherapy · doi:10.17759/cpp.2016240407
Majied, H. (2017) · University of Birmingham Institutional Research Archive (University of Birmingham)
Correlatos estructurales de las alteraciones cognitivas en niños con TEA
García, F. C. (2017) · Tesis Doctorals en Xarxa (Consorci de Serveis Universitaris de Catalunya) · doi:10.6035/14023.2017.146230
Essays in Interpersonal Economics
Devereux, K. (2018) · TSpace (University of Toronto)
Developing A Novel Measure of Theory of Mind: The Friendship Game
Smithers, M. (2020) · UEL Research Repository (University of East London) · doi:10.15123/uel.8882v
Measuring Individual Differences in Measures of Autism Spectrum Disorders
Elpers, K. E., & Coyle, T. R. (2021) · Journal of Individual Differences · doi:10.1027/1614-0001/a000351
Las habilidades mentalistas en la infancia
Romanazzi, M. J. (2020) · El Servicio de Difusión de la Creación Intelectual (National University of La Plata) · doi:10.35537/10915/125187
Miller, S. A. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197573174.003.0009
Miller, S. A. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197573174.003.0004
Miller, S. A. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197573174.003.0001
Understanding of Cognitive States
Miller, S. A. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197573174.003.0002
Consequences: Cognitive Development
Miller, S. A. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197573174.003.0006
Miller, S. A. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197573174.003.0010
Variations of First-Order Paradigms
Miller, S. A. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197573174.003.0005
Understanding of Affective States
Miller, S. A. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197573174.003.0003
Miller, S. A. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197573174.003.0008
Executive control functions and theory of mind among plurilingual adults
Shaharban, N. V., Rangaiah, B., & Thirumeni, D. (2022) · Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/20445911.2022.2119989
“…fluid intelligence is found to be a predictor of Theory of Mind as well (Ibanez et al., 2013) and the researchers have found that Theory of Mind tasks such as “Reading the Mind in the Eyes” is influenced by intelligence; hence it should be controlled while using this tool (Baker et al., 2014).”
MethodThe impact of fiction reading on social outcomes: A four-week randomized controlled studyPreprint
Dodell‐Feder, D., Liu, G., Amormino, P., Handley, E. D., & Tamir, D. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/e4n9v
Zhou, H., Chen, W., Lin, Z., & Chen, R. (2023) · Traitement du signal · doi:10.18280/ts.400326
“Ultimately, due to the trilinkage of the eyes [35], the centers of the two eyes 𝒄 𝑙 and 𝒄 𝑟 validate each other.”
Miller, S. A. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197573174.002.0006
Miller, S. A. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197573174.002.0003
Miller, S. A. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197573174.002.0004
Jarvis, A. L., Wong, S., Weightman, M. J., Simmonds, B., Keage, H. A. D., & Robinson, G. A. (2025) · Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology · doi:10.1093/arclin/acaf022
“FluidIQehasbeenshowntobepositivelyassociated withemotionperceptionandcognitiveandaffectiveToM performance(Bakeretal.,2014;DiTellaetal.,2020;Kongetal., 2022).”
Maupin, C., Gérain, P., Dassonneville, C., & Grynberg, D. (2025) · Obesity Reviews · doi:10.1111/obr.13948
“They may also test confounders such as verbal intelligence because of its association with emotional recognition difficulties [98–101].”
Psychopathic meanness is associated with fewer over-mentalizing errors
Gillespie, S. M., & Abu-Akel, A. M. (2025) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2025.102054
Social Cognition in Multiple Sclerosis: A Multidomain Investigation
Akbalık, D. E., Kürtüncü, M., Gündüz, T., & Bonato, M. (2026) · Behavioural Neurology · doi:10.1155/bn/5973577 · Cited by 1
“The list includes meanings and usage examples of the expressions [20].”
Presti, A. L., Tella, M. D., & Adenzato, M. (2026) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence14050090
“Specifically, performance on the RMET appears to be particularly influenced by other cognitive factors, including intelligence and verbal intelligence (Baker et al., 2014; Hafner et al., 2026; Higgins et al., 2026).”
Pagán, A. F., Dequina, N. G., Pagán, A. L., Loveland, K. A., & Acierno, R. (2026) · Advances in Neurodevelopmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s41252-026-00502-3
Manzi, F., Purpura, G., Peretti, G., Giusto, V. D., Caravella, V., Massaro, D., Marchetti, A., & Cavallini, A. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1823954
Polito, N. D., Gambarota, F., Hampson, E., & Herlitz, A. (2026) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2026.106877
Hsu, B., Hsu, Y., & Weng, C. (2026) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.70395
Metadata
- Authors
- Baker, C. A., Peterson, E., Pulos, S., & Kirkland, R. A.
- Affiliations
- University of Northern Colorado (US)
- Corresponding author
- Baker, Crystal A.
- Venue
- Intelligence
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2014-05
- Volume
- 44
- Pages
- 78-92
- ISSN
- 0160-2896 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2021038216
- Cited by
- 174
- References
- 115
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 15 · 2022: 25 · 2021: 22 · 2020: 27 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 17 · 2017: 11 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 8 · 2014: 1
- FWCI
- 1.69
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Intelligence (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Keywords
- Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test, theory of mind, IQ, verbal ability, performance capacity, social cognition
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