Dietary Sodium and Health
Open accessAbstract
Sodium is essential for cellular homeostasis and physiological function. Excess dietary sodium has been linked to elevations in blood pressure (BP). Salt-sensitivity of BP varies widely, but certain subgroups tend to be more salt-sensitive. The mechanisms underlying sodium-induced increases in BP are not completely understood, but may involve alterations in renal function, fluid volume, fluid regulatory hormones, the vasculature, cardiac function, and the autonomic nervous system. Recent pre-clinical and clinical data support that even in the absence of an increase in BP, excess dietary sodium can adversely affect target organs, including the blood vessels, heart, kidneys, and brain. In this review, we address these issues and the epidemiological literature relating dietary sodium to BP and cardiovascular health outcomes, addressing recent controversies. We also provide information and strategies for reducing dietary sodium.
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Reduced sodium diets improve endothelial function and nitric oxide bioavailability.
“We have previously demonstrated that reduced sodium diets result in improved endothelial function and nitric oxide bioavailability.13, 17, 21, 40”
From Reducing Dietary Sodium to 1000 mg per Day Reduces Neurovascular Transduction Without Stimulating Sympathetic Outflow (2019) · cites this paper as [13]
The ARTERIES section (page unavailable) reports that sodium restriction improved endothelial function in adults with elevated blood pressure. It also says high sodium likely reduces nitric oxide bioavailability, but does not establish that a reduced-sodium diet improves nitric oxide bioavailability. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredLower dietary sodium has been shown to enhance endothelial function.
“Reduced dietary sodium has been shown to improve endothelial function,13, 17, 18, 21”
From Reducing Dietary Sodium to 1000 mg per Day Reduces Neurovascular Transduction Without Stimulating Sympathetic Outflow (2019) · cites this paper as [13]
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Self-citationPleasure: The politics and the reality
Wechsler, H. A. (1995) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/bf02233970 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Reproducibility of Blood Pressure Responses to Dietary Sodium and Potassium Interventions
Gu, D., Zhao, Q., Chen, J., Chen, J.-C., Huang, J., Bazzano, L., Lu, F., Mu, J., Li, J., Cao, J., et al. (2013) · Hypertension · doi:10.1161/hypertensionaha.113.01034 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
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Sodium-Selective Salt Sensitivity
Schmidlin, O., Forman, A., Sebastián, A., & Morris, R. C. (2007) · Hypertension · doi:10.1161/hypertensionaha.107.091694 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Hooper, L., Griffiths, E., Abrahams, B., Alexander, W., Atkins, S., Atkinson, G., Bamford, R., Chinuck, R. S., Farrington, J. F., Gardner, E., et al. (2004) · Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics · doi:10.1111/j.1365-277x.2004.00533.x · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Benefit assessment of salt reduction in patients with hypertension: systematic overview
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Salt restriction among hypertensive patients: Modest blood pressure effect and no adverse effects
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Is salt-sensitivity of blood pressure a reproducible phenomenon???commentary
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Flagged first, then by citations
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Intake and adequacy of the vegan diet. A systematic review of the evidence
Bakaloudi, D. R., Halloran, A., Rippin, H. L., Oikonomidou, A. C., Dardavesis, T. I., Williams, J., Wickramasinghe, K., Breda, J., & Chourdakis, M. (2021) · Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2020.11.035 · Cited by 466 · see citing works
Dietary salt promotes neurovascular and cognitive dysfunction through a gut-initiated TH17 response
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Self-citationStorz, M. A., & Ronco, A. L. (2023) · British Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114522001908 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
- Authors
- Farquhar, W. B., Edwards, D. G., Jurkovitz, C. T., & Weintraub, W. S.
- Affiliations
- University of Delaware (US)
- Christiana Care Health System (US)
- Corresponding author
- Weintraub, William S.
- Venue
- Journal of the American College of Cardiology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2015-03
- Volume
- 65
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 1042-1050
- ISSN
- 0735-1097 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC5098396
- OpenAlex
- W194822541
- Semantic Scholar
- d549d6d40de1cbd571bacfcef2db2e6d42efd8bf
- Cited by
- 348
- References
- 113
- Citations by year
- 2026: 24 · 2025: 38 · 2024: 36 · 2023: 33 · 2022: 33 · 2021: 44 · 2020: 44 · 2019: 39 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 14 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 9
- FWCI
- 2.44
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of the American College of Cardiology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- American College of Cardiology Foundation
- National Institutes of Health (GM103446, GM104941)
- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (R01HL104106)
- National Institute of General Medical Sciences (P20GM103446, U54GM104941)
- National Center for Research Resources (P20RR016472)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Sodium Intake and Health
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Blood Pressure and Hypertension Studies
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutritional Studies and Diet
- Keywords
- dietary sodium, blood pressure, salt sensitivity, hypertension, target organ damage, renal function, fluid regulation, autonomic nervous system
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Autonomic Nervous System, Black or African American, Blood Pressure, Cardiac Output, Humans, Hypertension, Sodium, Dietary, Vascular Resistance, Health Behavior
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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