Interleukins (from IL-1 to IL-38), interferons, transforming growth factor β, and TNF-α: Receptors, functions, and roles in diseases
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There have been extensive developments on cellular and molecular mechanisms of immune regulation in allergy, asthma, autoimmune diseases, tumor development, organ transplantation, and chronic infections during the last few years. Better understanding the functions, reciprocal regulation, and counterbalance of subsets of immune and inflammatory cells that interact through interleukins, interferons, TNF-α, and TGF-β offer opportunities for immune interventions and novel treatment modalities in the era of development of biological immune response modifiers particularly targeting these molecules or their receptors. More than 60 cytokines have been designated as interleukins since the initial discoveries of monocyte and lymphocyte interleukins (called IL-1 and IL-2, respectively). Studies of transgenic or gene-deficient mice with altered expression of these cytokines or their receptors and analyses of mutations and polymorphisms in human genes that encode these products have provided essential information about their functions. Here we review recent developments on IL-1 to IL-38, TNF-α, TGF-β, and interferons. We highlight recent advances during the last few years in this area and extensively discuss their cellular sources, targets, receptors, signaling pathways, and roles in immune regulation in patients with allergy and asthma and other inflammatory diseases.
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The Complex Type 2 Endotype in Allergy and Asthma: From Laboratory to Bedside
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Self-citationIL-9 Regulates Allergen-Specific Th1 Responses in Allergic Contact Dermatitis
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IL‐27 stimulates human NK‐cell effector functions and primes NK cells for IL‐18 responsiveness
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Regulation of the foxp3 Gene by the Th1 Cytokines: The Role of IL-27-Induced STAT1
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Molecular cloning of two isoforms of a receptor for the human hematopoietic cytokine interleukin-11
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Thymic Stromal Lymphopoietin-Mediated Extramedullary Hematopoiesis Promotes Allergic Inflammation
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Inhibition of angiogenesis by IL-32: Possible role in asthma
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Self-citationPatients with cystic fibrosis have inducible IL-17+IL-22+ memory cells in lung draining lymph nodes
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The paradoxical TGF-β vasculopathies
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Distinct subunit pairing criteria within the heterodimeric IL-12 cytokine family
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Editorial: CSF1R, CSF-1, and IL-34, a “ménage à trois” conserved across vertebrates
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The future of biologics: Applications for food allergy
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The antitumor potential of Interleukin-27 in prostate cancer
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The cloning and biological characterization of recombinant human interleukin 11
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A genome-wide survey of CD4+ lymphocyte regulatory genetic variants identifies novel asthma genes
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Characterization of a high TNF-α phenotype in children with moderate-to-severe asthma
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Dectin-1 activation unlocks IL12A expression and reveals the TH1 potency of neonatal dendritic cells
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Thyroid dysfunction: an autoimmune aspect.
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The Sleep-Immune Crosstalk in Health and Disease
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The Tumor Microenvironment in the Response to Immune Checkpoint Blockade Therapies
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Microanatomy of the Human Atherosclerotic Plaque by Single-Cell Transcriptomics
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Type 2 immunity in the skin and lungs
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Type 2 immunity in allergic diseases
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Allergen Immunotherapy in Children User’s Guide
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Dictionary of immune responses to cytokines at single-cell resolution
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Mechanisms of immune regulation in allergic diseases: the role of regulatory T and B cells
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Selected cytokine pathways in rheumatoid arthritis
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Jutel, M., Agache, I. O., Zemelka‐Wiącek, M., Akdiş, M., Chivato, T., Giacco, S. D., Gajdanowicz, P., Eguíluz‐Gracia, I., Klimek, L., Lauerma, A., et al. (2023) · Allergy · doi:10.1111/all.15889 · Cited by 297 · see citing works
Self-citationPathological mechanisms and therapeutic outlooks for arthrofibrosis
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Immunopathogenesis of Behcet's Disease
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Sugita, K., Steer, C. A., Martínez-González, I., Altunbulakli, C., Morita, H., Castro-Giner, F., Kubo, T., Wawrzyniak, P., Rückert, B., Sudo, K., et al. (2017) · Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2017.02.038 · Cited by 277 · see citing works
Self-citationCellular and molecular mechanisms of allergic asthma
Komlósi, Z. I., van de Veen, W., Kovács, N., Szűcs, G., Sokołowska, M., O’Mahony, L., Akdiş, M., & Akdiş, C. A. (2021) · Molecular Aspects of Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.mam.2021.100995 · Cited by 260 · see citing works
Self-citationWooff, Y., Man, S. M., Aggio‐Bruce, R., Natoli, R., & Fernando, N. (2019) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2019.01618 · Cited by 244 · see citing works
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“Both IL-1α and IL-8 have proinflammatory functions as chemoattractants for leukocytes and haematopoiesis, and have been targeted for treatments in a number of autoimmune conditions.(32) However, there was no association between GAD and IL-5, which is thought to predominantly mediate myeloid cell activation and is a ta…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialNutrition and the Immune System: A Complicated Tango
Venter, C., Eyerich, S., Sarin, T., & Klatt, K. C. (2020) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu12030818 · Cited by 247 · see citing works
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Animal models of asthma: utility and limitations
Aun, M. V., Bonamichi-Santos, R., Arantes-Costa, F. M., Kalil, J. E., & Junior, P. F. G.-B. (2017) · Journal of Asthma and Allergy · doi:10.2147/jaa.s121092 · Cited by 238 · see citing works
“90,91 In recent years, biological actions of some novel mediators, such as interleukins IL-25 and IL-33 and thymic stromal lymphopoietin, major airway epithelial-derived cytokines, have been described.”
Role of interleukins in the pathogenesis of pulmonary fibrosis
She, Y. X., Yu, Q. Y., & Tang, X. X. (2021) · Cell Death Discovery · doi:10.1038/s41420-021-00437-9 · Cited by 226 · see citing works
Obesity and disease severity magnify disturbed microbiome-immune interactions in asthma patients
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“…β , a pro‑inflammatory cytokine, which becomes biologically active by cleavage, requiring the protease caspase‑1 (182), which is activated through the NLRP3 inflammasome complex (183). obesity appears to be directly related to the deregulation of il‑1 β expression and the increase in its levels.”
BackgroundMechanisms of allergen-specific immunotherapy and allergen tolerance
Küçüksezer, U. C., Özdemir, C., Cevhertas, L., Öğülür, İ., Akdis, M., & Akdiş, C. A. (2020) · Allergology International · doi:10.1016/j.alit.2020.08.002 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
Self-citationBiological roles and potential applications of immune cell‐derived extracellular vesicles
Wen, C., Seeger, R. C., Fabbri, M., Wang, L. W., Wayne, A. S., & Jong, A. (2017) · Journal of Extracellular Vesicles · doi:10.1080/20013078.2017.1400370 · Cited by 176 · see citing works
“cross-talk amongst immune cells is through interleukins, chemokines, interferons and other signalling molecules [51,52].”
BackgroundJansen, K., Cevhertas, L., Ma, S.-Y., Satitsuksanoa, P., Akdiş, M., & van de Veen, W. (2021) · Allergy. European Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology · doi:10.1111/all.14763 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
Ozone exposure induces respiratory barrier biphasic injury and inflammation controlled by IL-33
Michaudel, C., Mackowiak, C., Maillet, I., Fauconnier, L., Akdiş, C. A., Sokołowska, M., Dreher, A., Tan, H. T., Quesniaux, V. F. J., Ryffel, B., et al. (2018) · Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2017.11.044 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
The Diversification of Cell Death and Immunity: Memento Mori
Legrand, A. J., Konstantinou, M., Goode, E., & Meier, P. (2019) · Molecular Cell · doi:10.1016/j.molcel.2019.09.006 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
IL-31: A new key player in dermatology and beyond
Bağci, I. S., & Ruzicka, T. (2018) · Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2017.10.045 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
Type 2 chronic inflammatory diseases: targets, therapies and unmet needs
Kolkhir, P., Akdiş, C. A., Akdiş, M., Bachert, C., Bieber, T. R. M., Canonica, G. W., Guttman‐Yassky, E., Metz, M., Mullol, J., Palomares, Ó., et al. (2023) · Nature Reviews Drug Discovery · doi:10.1038/s41573-023-00750-1 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Varicocele-Mediated Male Infertility: From the Perspective of Testicular Immunity and Inflammation
Fang, Y., Su, Y., Xu, J. M., Hu, Z., Zhao, K., Liu, C., & Zhang, H. (2021) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2021.729539 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
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“Surprisingly, we observed no significant increase in mitochondrial mass following activation, which has previously been demonstrated (57, 58). which was positively correlated with ME/CFS CD8 + T cell glycolysis, is a T cell growth factor but has complex effects (63).”
InfluentialA comprehensive pathway map of IL-18-mediated signalling
Balaya, R. D. A., Agarwal, N., Prasad, T. S. K., Kandasamy, R. K., Subbannayya, Y., & Pinto, S. M. (2019) · Journal of Cell Communication and Signaling · doi:10.1007/s12079-019-00544-4 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
TGF-β as A Master Regulator of Aging-Associated Tissue Fibrosis
Ren, L.-L., Miao, H., Wang, Y.-N., Liu, F., Li, P., & Zhao, Y.-Y. (2023) · Aging and disease · doi:10.14336/ad.2023.0222 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
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Topological control of cytokine receptor signaling induces differential effects in hematopoiesis
Mohan, K., Ueda, G., Kim, A. R., Jude, K. M., Fallas, J. A., Guo, Y., Hafer, M., Miao, Y., Saxton, R. A., Piehler, J., et al. (2019) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.aav7532 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
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Innate and adaptive immune responses to fungi in the airway
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The Interleukin-1 (IL-1) Superfamily Cytokines and Their Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs)
Behzadi, P., Aga, S. S., Nissar, S., Banday, M. Z., Gajdács, M., García‐Perdomo, H. A., Akhtar, K., Pinheiro, M., Magnusson, P., Sarshar, M., et al. (2022) · Journal of Immunology Research · doi:10.1155/2022/2054431 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
“Decoy receptors are conserved evolutionary structures which restrict the chemokines, cytokines, and growth factors activities [45 – 48, 68, 128, 129, 134].”
InfluentialLiu, G., Sun, J., Yang, Z., Zhou, C., Zhou, P., Guan, R., Sun, B., Wang, Z.-T., Zhou, J., Fan, J., et al. (2021) · Cell Death and Disease · doi:10.1038/s41419-021-03545-7 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
IL-36 in chronic inflammation and fibrosis — bridging the gap?
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Effects of inflammation on the kynurenine pathway in schizophrenia—a systematic review
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Acute Respiratory Barrier Disruption by Ozone Exposure in Mice
Sokołowska, M., Quesniaux, V. F. J., Akdiş, C. A., Chung, K. F., Ryffel, B., & Togbe, D. (2019) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2019.02169 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Chronic urticaria: unmet needs, emerging drugs, and new perspectives on personalised treatment
Zuberbier, T., Ensina, L. F., Giménez‐Arnau, A. M., Grattan, C., Kocatürk, E., Kulthanan, K., Kolkhir, P., & Maurer, M. (2024) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(24)00852-3 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
“23 Th2 cell-derived cytokines (eg, IL-4, IL-5, IL-13, IL-31) and IgE against autoallergens produced by B cells (eg, IgE-anti-thyroperoxidase and IgE-anti-IL-24) activate a broad range of receptors, including IL-4Rα, IL-5Rα, IL-31RA, and FcεRI, on mast cells and other target cells.”
The Dynamic Inflammatory Tissue Microenvironment: Signality and Disease Therapy by Biomaterials
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“A recent study has indicated critical roles of CXCL8 and CXCR1 or CXCR2 in fostering neutrophil stimulation and induction to the inflammation site [24].”
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Il-10 producing T and B cells in allergy
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Regulation of the germinal center and humoral immunity by interleukin-21
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“Nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), which mediates the increase in the secretion by microglia of such cytokines as IL-1β and IL-18 and is activated by IL-1β, TNF-α, PAMP, adrenal cortex hormones and adrenaline, may play an important role in the potential pathological feedback loop associated with disturbances in the cytokine n…”
BackgroundInfluentialThe micro(nano)plastics perspective: exploring cancer development and therapy
Deng, X., Gui, Y., & Zhao, L. (2025) · Molecular Cancer · doi:10.1186/s12943-025-02230-z · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Immunological Outcomes of Allergen-Specific Immunotherapy in Food Allergy
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“IL-4 and IL13 are structurally and functionally related cytokines that play a central role in allergic inflammation through induction of IgE class switch recombination, smooth muscle cell contraction, goblet cell hyperplasia and mucus production (26).”
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Biological function of eosinophil extracellular traps in patients with severe eosinophilic asthma
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Phenotypes, Functions, and Clinical Relevance of Regulatory B Cells in Cancer
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“The miR-146b signal was weaker than that of miR-146a and was detected in both the epidermis and the dermis of the lesional skin of patients with psoriasis (Figure 1d). miR-146a was induced by IL-1b, tumor necrosis factor-a (TNF-a), and IL-17A in human proliferating keratinocytes, in 3D reconstituted epidermis, and in…”
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Interleukin-31 promotes fibrosis and T helper 2 polarization in systemic sclerosis
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An overview of the tumor microenvironment, from cells to complex networks (Review)
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“However, they are an important source of IL4, which is Th2 polarizing and protumoral (23).”
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Interleukin 1 gene polymorphism and susceptibility to disease
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Role of Regulatory Cells in Oral Tolerance
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“Clinical tolerance induced by immunotherapy is associated with changes in basophils, IgG4, allergen-specific Th2 cells, and allergen-specific cells with regulatory markers.(76,77) A more complete understanding of mechanisms underlying the induction of oral tolerance with immunotherapy or natural tolerance to food alle…”
BackgroundSelf-citationA Current Perspective of Allergic Asthma: From Mechanisms to Management
Papadopoulos, N. G., Miligkos, M., & Xepapadaki, P. V. (2021) · Handbook of experimental pharmacology · doi:10.1007/164_2021_483 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
IL-26, a Cytokine With Roles in Extracellular DNA-Induced Inflammation and Microbial Defense
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The Complex Interplay between Lipids, Immune System and Interleukins in Cardio-Metabolic Diseases
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Risk factors for immune-related adverse events: what have we learned and what lies ahead?
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Cirauqui, C., Benito‐Villalvilla, C., Sánchez‐Ramón, S., Sirvent, S., Diez-Rivero, C. M., Conejero, L., Brandi, P., Hernández‐Cillero, L., Ochoa, J., Pérez‐Villamil, B., et al. (2017) · European Journal of Immunology · doi:10.1002/eji.201747024 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Novel Biologicals for the Treatment of Allergic Diseases and Asthma
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Self-citationThe role of IL-1 family of cytokines and receptors in pathogenesis of COVID-19
Makaremi, S., Asgarzadeh, A., Kianfar, H., Mohammadnia, A., Asghariazar, V., & Safarzadeh, E. (2022) · Inflammation Research · doi:10.1007/s00011-022-01596-w · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Cytokines in oncolytic virotherapy
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“The majority of the upregulated inflammatory markers were chemokines (CCL3, CCL4, CCL20, MCP-1, and MCP-3) or interleukins (IL6, IL-8, and IL-10), which promote and regulate immune responses in a pleiotropic manner, depending on their target [59, 60].”
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STAT6 gain-of-function variant exacerbates multiple allergic symptoms
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Emerging Role of the IL-36/IL-36R Axis in Multiple Inflammatory Skin Diseases
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The Evolution, Immunopathogenesis and Biomarkers of Type 2 Inflammation in Common Allergic Disorders
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“Likewise, TGF-β balances pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory effects by decreasing the cellular growth of almost all immune cell precursors and acts in the regulation of the differentiation of several T-helper cell subsets [58].”
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Immunotherapy for Colorectal Cancer: Mechanisms and Predictive Biomarkers
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“There are currently 38 recognized interleukins with some containing multiple family members such as IL-1α and IL-1β for an overall total of more than 60 [145].”
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- Authors
- Akdis, M., Aab, A., Altunbulakli, C., Azkur, K., Costa, R. A., Crameri, R., Duan, S., Eiwegger, T., Eljaszewicz, A., Ferstl, R., Frei, R., Garbani, M., Globinska, A., Hess, L., Huitema, C., Kubo, T., Komlosi, Z., Konieczna, P., Kovacs, N., Kucuksezer, U. C., Meyer, N., Morita, H., Olzhausen, J., O'Mahony, L., Pezer, M., Prati, M., Rebane, A., Rhyner, C., Rinaldi, A., Sokolowska, M., Stanic, B., Sugita, K., Treis, A., van de Veen, W., Wanke, K., Wawrzyniak, M., Wawrzyniak, P., Wirz, O. F., Zakzuk, J. S., & Akdis, C. A.
- Affiliations
- University of Zurich (CH)
- ORCID
- Venue
- Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2016-10
- Volume
- 138
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 984-1010
- ISSN
- 0091-6749 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2517700447
- Cited by
- 912
- References
- 222
- Citations by year
- 2026: 57 · 2025: 117 · 2024: 102 · 2023: 108 · 2022: 119 · 2021: 128 · 2020: 97 · 2019: 75 · 2018: 64 · 2017: 39 · 2016: 4
- FWCI
- 6.10
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) (acceptedVersion)
- Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) (submittedVersion)
- Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich)
- Funders
- Swiss National Science Foundation (310030_156823, 320030-159870)
- Christine Kühne-Center for Allergy Research and Education (CK-CARE)
- PREDICTA
- European Commission's Seventh Framework programme (260895, 261357)
- GlaxoSmithKline
- European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology
- Global Allergy and Asthma European Network (GA2LEN)
- International Society for Applied Biological Sciences
- Commission for Technology and Innovation
- Novartis
- MeDALL
- Christine Kühne-Center for Allergy Research and Education
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Oncology › Cytokine Signaling Pathways and Interactions
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Asthma and respiratory diseases
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › IL-33, ST2, and ILC Pathways
- Keywords
- interleukins, interferon, TGF-beta, TNF-α, cytokine receptors, cytokine signaling pathways, immune regulation, allergy, asthma, autoimmune disease, chronic infection, organ transplantation, carcinogenesis, gene-deficient mice, cytokine gene polymorphisms
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Humans, Immune System Diseases, Interferons, Interleukins, Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha, Transforming Growth Factor beta, T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory
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