Contested value and an ethics of resources: Water, mining and indigenous people in the Atacama Desert, Chile

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In months when crops are irrigated (all but winter months), the juez or alcalde of water makes sure that the reservoirs fill up each night and that the gates to the reservoir are opened at dawn.

“In the months when crops are being irrigated (all but winter months), the juez or alcalde of water (both terms, 'judge' and 'mayor', may be used to refer to the role) makes sure that the reservoirs fill up each night and that the gates to the reservoir are opened at dawn.”

May combine two claims.

Other forms of water commodification are at the centre of contest among the mining industry, government and Atacameños, and also between Atacameño groups.

“Other forms of water commodification are at the centre of contest among the mining industry, government and Atacameños, and also between Atacameño groups.”

May combine two claims.

Each village on the eastern side of the Salar has elected committees who manage town water infrastructure, and in most cases these committees are charged with proposing, seeking, and organising investment in local works from government and corporate interests.

“In contrast, each village on the eastern side of the Salar has elected committees who manage town water infrastructure (in different ways), and in most cases these committees are charged with proposing, seeking, and organising investment in local works from government and corporate interests.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The change to provision of water infrastructure in the houses has been recent and significant.

“The change to provision of water infrastructure in the houses has been recent and significant”

May combine two claims.

Contemporary Atacameño formulations of value and resource ethics draw on the use of water for aspects of the agro-pastoral economy and new opportunities for entering the market economy, as well as the moral interconnectedness of indigenous bodies and that of nature.

“Contemporary Atacameño formulations of value and resource ethics draw on the use of water for aspects of the agro-pastoral economy and new opportunities for entering the market economy, as well as the moral interconnectedness of indigenous bodies and that of 'nature'.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Some Atacameños think that people of Peine have not adequately resisted mining company extraction; they have encouraged the presence of companies in their territory and gained financially as a result, and some imply they have sold their water.

“Thus the accusation indicated that some Atacameños think that people of Peine have not adequately resisted mining company extraction; they have encouraged the presence of companies in their territory and gained financially as a result.Some thus imply they have 'sold their water'.”

May combine two claims.

In the last two decades, Atacameños have built infrastructure such as concrete channels and reservoirs and invested in town plumbing that pipes water from the springs above villages to household taps and flushing toilets.

“in the last two decades people have built infrastructure (such as that described above, as well as concrete channels and reservoirs) and invested in town plumbing that pipes water from the springs above villages to household taps and flushing toilets.”

May combine two claims.

The springs near some villages have water that is very high in mineral content, making it less than ideal for human consumption and providing the impetus for seeking potable sources.

“The springs near some villages have water that is very high in mineral content, making it less than ideal for human consumption and providing the impetus for seeking potable sources.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

People say that it is preferable for water to be ordered and managed by local committees and not by corporations like in the cities.

“people say that it is preferable for water to be ordered and managed by local committees and not by corporations like in the cities.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A criticism by a number of Atacameño people was that Peine Community, which receives annual financial benefits intended for community development from MEL as part of the company's Corporate Social Responsibility program, risks becoming a town with luxuries but with no water.

“a criticism by a number of Atacameño people I spoke to was that Peine Community, which receives annual financial benefits intended for 'community development' from MEL as part of the company's Corporate Social Responsibility program, risks becoming 'un pueblo de lujo, pero sin agua' (a town with luxuries but with no water).”

May combine two claims.

While the legal agreement the Peine community has negotiated with the mining company does not specify that it is about direct compensation for MEL's water extraction from their territory, it is broadly understood by Atacameños that one is aimed at compensating the other.

“While the legal agreement the Peine community has negotiated with the mining company does not specify that it is about direct compensation for MEL's water extraction from their territory, it is broadly understood by Atacameños that one is aimed at compensating the other.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In the past, residents of most villages would have to carry water a distance from the spring to their houses.

“In the past residents of most villages would have to carry water a distance from the spring to their houses.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Some villages rely on their irrigation canals to feed water into household use, but this can become polluted and pipes blocked when there is rain or snow melt bringing detritus.

“Some villages rely on their irrigation canals to feed water into household use, but this can become polluted and pipes blocked when there is rain or snow melt bringing detritus.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Both younger and older Atacameños conjectured that the long drought since the late 1970s might be due to a decline in local practices honouring the cerros and the springs, a decline that has coincided with the arrival of mining and greater economic prosperity for some.

“Both younger and older people conjectured in this context that the long drought (since the late 1970s) might be due to a decline in local practices honouring the cerros and the springs, a decline that nonetheless has coincided with the arrival of mining and greater economic prosperity for some.”

May combine two claims.

In most cases, villagers do not pay money for their water, and in the past rights to water (the same water for both irrigation and household use) were available for all people on the basis that everyone took part in communal labour.

“In most cases, villagers do not pay money for their water, and in the past rights to water (the same water for both irrigation and household use) were available for all people on the basis that everyone took part in communal labour.”

May combine two claims.

Atacameños assert that 'agua es un ser' (water is a being) and acknowledge water's presence in particular places (especially those places such as springs, where it appears from aquifers deep below the desert surface) as well as more generally within traditional territories associated with each named peak of the Andes mountain range.

“Atacameños assert that, 'agua es un ser' (water is a being) and acknowledge water's presence in particular places (especially those places such as springs, where it appears from aquifers deep below the desert surface) as well as more generally within traditional territories associated with each named peak of the Andes mountain range.”

May combine two claims.

Atacameños do sell these waters where they judge them to be used and valued in particular ways, and see this as consistent with other local forms of water value.

“However, as I have shown, Atacameños do sell these waters where they judge them to be used and valued in particular ways, and see this as consistent with other local forms of water value.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Agricultural plots and gardens at the lower end of the village are watered first and carefully monitored for any potential waste, with el juez and each garden plot owner present and ready to close and open their gates as the water comes their way.

“Agricultural plots and gardens at the lower end of the village are watered first and carefully monitored for any potential waste, with el juez and each garden plot owner present and ready to close and open their 'gates' as the water comes their way.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

In Atacameño cosmology, the pairing of action through ritual and communal labour is morally necessary, and the Pachamama is said to be satisfied with this pairing and will continue to feed the springs and water flows.

“The pairing of action through ritual and communal labour is morally necessary in Atacameño cosmology; the Pachamama is said to be satisfied with this pairing and will continue to feed the springs and water flows.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

For some Atacameños, the water from springs is too salty, meaning one cannot get proper suds from detergent or good fruit from fruit trees.

“For some the water from springs is 'too salty', meaning one cannot get proper suds from detergent or good fruit from fruit trees.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Atacameños insist that it is Atacameño labour and collective organisation that sees the water infrastructure realised.

“But Atacameños insist that it is Atacameño labour and collective organisation that sees the infrastructure realised.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

The waters reside in or emerge from place(s), and humans and non-humans rely for the complex array of their existence on these situated waters.

“The waters reside in or emerge from place(s) and humans and non-humans rely for the complex array of their existence on these situated waters.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Illegal water prospecting in this remote, sparsely populated and supremely under regulated region is rumoured to be rife, and no certainty exists in relation to volumes of aquifers or flows of underground channels.

“Illegal water prospecting in this remote, sparsely populated and supremely under regulated region, is rumoured to be rife and no certainty exists in relation to volumes of aquifers or flows of underground channels.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Changes may also be detected in broader water values in Chile.

“The complex 'waterscapes' I describe lead me to argue that rights based, or normative claims to an 'indigenous value' of water fall short of representing Atacameño values for these resources, and that changes may also be detected in broader water values in Chile.”

May combine two claims.

While extractive activity is now more regulated, publicly contested and halted by appeals to indigenous rights and environmental concerns than in the past, in other examples the value of water as a resource for the mining industry in this region triumphs over rights claims.

“While extractive activity is thus now more regulated by Chilean government bodies, publically contested and indeed halted by appeals to indigenous rights and environmental concerns than in the past, in other examples the value of water as a resource for the mining industry in this region triumphs over rights claims.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

This value of water in Atacameño customary life may be understood in terms of intrinsic or absolute value, a value that embodies the relation of water to the places in which it materially exists, and to the peoples who perform (ritual and economic) labour associated with its material, topological, and spiritual existence.

“This value of water in Atacameño customary life may be understood in terms of intrinsic or absolute value, a value that embodies the relation of water to the places in which it materially exists, and to the peoples who perform (ritual and economic) labour associated with its material, topological, and spiritual existence.”

May combine two claims.

MEL retains legally registered rights to extract water at 1,600 litres per second from the area and in 2012 reported that 81% of their total consumption of water for the copper mine would come from extraction of groundwater in that sector.

“The company retains legally registered rights to extract water at 1,600 litres per second from the area and in 2012 reported that 81% of their total consumption of water for the copper mine would come from extraction of groundwater in that sector (Minera Escondida Limitada 2012).”

• cites Minera Escondida Limitada 2012Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

MEL reports that it extracted over 50,000,000 cubic metres of subterranean water from its mine in 2011 and 2012.

“MEL reports that it extracted over 50,000,000 cubic metres of subterranean water from its mine in 2011 and 2012 (Minera Escondida Limitada 2013).”

• cites Minera Escondida Limitada 2013Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Selling these surface waters is illegal and the very basis for recognition of its indigenous value is inconsistent with commodity values.

“Selling these surface waters is illegal and the very basis for recognition of its indigenous value is inconsistent with commodity values.”

May combine two claims.

For those keen on reviving traditional practice or claiming rights to waters, it is increasingly difficult to sustain a coherence of what are politically conceived as indigenous rights, as many people put the subsistence economy of agriculture, and cultural activities that elaborate on it, second to remunerative benefits associated with the mining industry and resulting cash incomes or financingof

“For those keen on reviving traditional practice or claiming rights to waters, it is increasingly difficult to sustain a coherence of what are politically conceived as 'indigenous rights', as many people put the subsistence economy of agriculture, and cultural activities that elaborate on it, second to remunerative benefits associated with the mining industry and resulting cash incomes or financing”

May combine two claims.

One reason for the contest of values for water is in relation to scale: extremes of volume seem to confront resource practices relating to scarcity in this parched landscape, where the collective management of risk and uncertainty through communal labour are part of an everyday ethic of resources.

“One is in relation to scale.Extremes of volume, as reported, seem to confront resource practices relating to scarcity in this parched landscape, where the collective management of risk and uncertainty through communal labour are part of an everyday ethic of resources (G€ obel 2008).”

• cites G€ obel 2008Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

These rituals celebrate a spiritual presence within the landscape of which water is part and, as a being and part of the being of the Pachamama, water is a moral indicator, valued in terms of its capacity to provide or to withhold.

“These rituals celebrate a spiritual presence within the landscape of which water is part and, as a being and part of the being of the Pachamama, water is a moral indicator, valued in terms of its capacity to provide or to withhold.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

In recognition of the essential nature of surface waters for traditional subsistence and cultural practice in Atacameño villages, Chilean law provides confidence in the sustained presence of waters through registration of specified volumes with authorities (the DGA).

“In recognition of the essential nature of 'surface waters' for traditional subsistence and cultural practice in Atacameño villages, Chilean law provides confidence in the sustained presence of waters through registration of specified volumes with authorities (the DGA).”

May combine two claims.

People distinguished between community labour and the activities of professionals, indicating that the nature of people's work with and control of water was itself valued.

“People thus distinguished between community labour and the activities of 'professionals', indicating that the nature of people's work with and control of water was itself valued.”

May combine two claims.

MEL are building a desalination plant to support expansion of operations at Escondida, but desalination currently offer less than 10% of total needed for their operation.

“MEL are building a desalination plant to support expansion of operations at Escondida, but desalination currently offer less than 10% of total needed for their operation (MEL 2011).”

• cites MEL 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The Indigenous Community of Peine has 65.6 litres per second and their neighbours the Indigenous Community of Socaire, 135 litres per second in rights to water, drawn from the numerous springs that each channels into irrigation ditches.

“For example, the Indigenous Community of Peine has 65.6 litres per second and their neighbours the Indigenous Community of Socaire, 135 litres per second in rights to water, drawn from the numerous springs that each channels into irrigation ditches (Y añez and Molina 2011, p. 59).”

• cites Yañez and Molina 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

In cases of small-scale commodification for human comfort and subsistence, minimal contest arises between mining companies and residents, since water is understood by locals in terms of the value of human life, but also as an economic resource with market value at small volumes.

“In these cases, minimal contest arises between mining companies and residents in regard to forms of commodification for human comfort and subsistence, since water is understood by locals in terms of the value of human life, but also in these specific terms as an economic resource with 'market' value at small volumes.”

May combine two claims.

In Region II, all waters are derived from subterranean sources and ice melt, with watersheds that are spoken of as hydrologically 'closed' (that is, underground).

“In Region II, all waters are derived from subterranean sources and ice melt, with watersheds that are spoken of as hydrologically 'closed' (that is, underground) (Y añez and Molina 2011, p. 47).”

• cites Yañez and Molina 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

This is an argument for recognition of the value of water to indigenous peoples in terms of rights, and is connected inherently to the moral framework of Atacameño society.

“This is an argument for recognition of the value of water to indigenous peoples in terms of rights, and is connected inherently to the moral framework of Atacameño society.”

May combine two claims.

Actual quantities of water extracted by mining companies are invisible to and out of reach of local people.

“Actual quantities of water extracted by mining companies are invisible to and out of reach of local people.”

May combine two claims.

The objectifying properties of underground water flows (creating boundaries between peoples) and their ability to make dusty land fertile (its potential) add to broader observations relating to Atacameño values of water.

“The objectifying properties of underground water flows (creating boundaries between peoples) and their ability to make dusty land fertile (its potential) add to broader observations relating to Atacameño values of water.”

May combine two claims.

The value of water is intrinsic to human relations to nature, as well as arising from agricultural or pastoral labour and the social relations that such labour reproduces.

“The value of water is thus intrinsic to human relations to nature, as well as arising from agricultural or pastoral labour and the social relations that such labour reproduces.”

May combine two claims.

Since the late 1980s the copper miner, MEL, has extracted water from underground sources that flow to the Salar de Punta Negra, and as a result of these and other company's extractions in the past, that Salar and its lagoons were dried out.

“Since the late 1980s the copper miner, MEL, has extracted water from underground sources that flow to the Salar de Punta Negra, and as a result of these and other company's extractions in the past, that Salar and its lagoons were dried out (Contreras 2002).”

• cites Contreras 2002Not checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In most areas of Chile, including Antofagasta, water for people's homes and daily needs is managed and provided by the corporation ESSEN.

“In most areas of Chile, including in the city of Antofagasta (capital of Region II), water for people's homes and daily needs is managed and provided by the corporation, ESSEN.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

These conceptualisations do not explain forms of commodification of water sources by Atacameños that they cast as ethical practice.

“Nonetheless, and as noted above, these conceptualisations do not explain forms of commodification of water sources by Atacameños that they cast as ethical practice.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In 'Pampa Colorada' an anticipated investment of USD300 million would go into the construction of 25 wells, 190 kilometres of pipelines, a transmission line and a minor hydroelectric plant that would serve as an alternative energy supply for extractive operations.

“In 'Pampa Colorada' an anticipated investment of USD300 million would go into the construction of 25 wells, 190 kilometres of pipelines, a transmission line and a minor hydroelectric plant that would serve as an alternative energy supply for extractive operations (Gobierno De Chile 2007).”

• cites Gobierno De Chile 2007Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The value of water has been articulated by different actors as many kinds of 'rights' and 'resources' which are indirectly and directly contested, as well as being contradictory and inconsistent.

“The value of water has been thus articulated by different actors as many kinds of 'rights' and 'resources' which are indirectly and directly contested, as well as being contradictory and inconsistent.”

May combine two claims.

In 2005, higher levels of environmental regulation were introduced and subterranean water exploration (especially that related to mineral exploration) was prohibited in the northern arid regions of Chile, unless undertaken with authorisation from the DGA.

“In 2005, higher levels of environmental regulation were introduced and subterranean water exploration (especially that related to mineral exploration) was prohibited in the northern arid regions of Chile, unless undertaken with authorisation from the DGA (Ministerio de Justicia Republica de Chile 2008).”

• cites Ministerio de Justicia Republica de Chile 2008Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Such moves honour the relatedness of humans to non-humans in ritual practice and performance in ways that speak to and coax geocosmic beings such as the Pachamama into providing abundance.

“Such moves honour the relatedness of humans to non-humans in ritual practice and performance in ways that 'speak to' and coax geocosmic beings such as the Pachamama into providing abundance.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

The use and extraction of water in mining processes commodifies what is otherwise an essential substance; and commodification is less the object of contestation over its value than itself a subject of complex value.

“I have argued that the use and extraction of water in mining processes commodifies what is otherwise an essential substance; and that commodification is less the object of contestation over its value than itself a subject of complex value.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Ethics (as practical judgement) relates to how things are done and parallels the formation of value.

“Thus ethics (as practical judgement) relates to how things are done and parallels the formation of value.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Resource scarcity is a question of value given that contests over how scarce resources are to be used and distributed are contests over who may be judged to have greater right, interest, or access.

“Resource scarcity is a question of value given that contests over how scarce resources are to be used and distributed are contests over who may be judged to have greater 'right', interest, or access.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

An ethic of resources as practical judgement is not the exercise of rule (e.g. relating to the commodification of native waters), but the exercise of certain practice that indicates water's essential relationship to life.

“An ethic of resources as practical judgement is not the exercise of rule (e.g.relating to the commodification of 'native waters'), but the exercise of certain practice that indicates water's essential relationship to life.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

An analysis of the quality of certain acts and the nature of practical judgement in certain situations can be understood as ethical despite aspects of contradiction extant in situations of social change and contest.

“An analysis of the quality of certain acts and the nature of practical judgement in certain situations can thus be understood as ethical despite aspects of contradiction extant in situations of social change and contest.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Unlike Atacameños, who labour together to ensure that water exists and who make careful decisions about what to do with certain waters, mining companies seem to be able simply to continue to take water.

“I understand what she told me in terms of the ethic of resources: that unlike Atacameños, who labour together to ensure that water exists and who make careful decisions about what to do with certain waters, mining companies seem to be able simply to continue to take it.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The value of water may be partly understood in terms of human performance and practice around ensuring water's potential abundance despite scarcity.

“The value of water may be partly understood in terms of human performance and practice around ensuring water's potential abundance despite scarcity.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

What continues to be in contention is the way in which scarce water resources like those of the Salar de Atacama are managed, used, and understood.

“What continues to be in contention is that way in which scarce water resources like those of the Salar de Atacama are managed, used, and understood.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The free market mechanism of the Chilean Water Code has not been a success in ensuring that water will be available for ongoing human and environmental survival.