Impact of virtual reality applications in the treatment of anxiety disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized-controlled trials
Open accessAbstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Anxiety disorders are the most prevalent mental disorders worldwide. Virtual reality (VR) treatment approaches have increasingly been studied. Before clinical implementation, it is necessary to evaluate the treatment effect of VR applications. The objective is to evaluate the treatment effect of virtual reality applications in the treatment of anxiety disorders compared to conventional therapy. METHODS: A systematic literature review with meta-analysis was conducted. Four databases were used to identify randomized controlled trials published between April 2011 and April 2021 which compare VR applications with non-VR interventions or waiting lists. Study characteristics, pre- and post-treatment data were extracted. Hedges g was calculated as effect size. Primary outcome was anxiety symptoms. RESULTS: Data from 17 studies from 827 participants was extracted. The studies examined specific phobia (n = 9), social anxiety disorder (n = 4), agoraphobia (n = 2) and panic disorder (n = 2). 16 out of 17 studies used head-mounted displays as VR application. A non-significant effect size with significant heterogeneity was observed in favor of the use of VR applications in anxiety symptoms (g, 0.33; 95%-CI, -0.20-0.87). Compared to passive control groups, VR applications are associated significant with lower anxiety symptoms (g, 1.29; 95%-CI, 0.68-1.90). LIMITATIONS: The study and patient characteristics varied between the individual studies which is reflected in a high statistical heterogeneity of the effect sizes. CONCLUSIONS: The added value of VR applications over waiting-list or psychoeducation only control groups is obvious. VR applications can be used as part of the treatment of anxiety disorders, especially when conventional therapy is unavailable.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
IMTs have proven effective in treating a wide range of mental health conditions, such as anxiety, PTSD, autism spectrum disorders, and various phobias.
“Moreover, IMTs have proven effective in treating a wide range of mental health conditions, such as anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder, autism spectrum disorders, and various phobias [15-22].”
From Immersive technologies for depression care: scoping review (2024) · cites this paper as [18]
Cites
The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews
Page, M. J., McKenzie, J. E., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D., Shamseer, L., Tetzlaff, J. M., Akl, E. A., Brennan, S. E., et al. (2021) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.n71 · Cited by 108,283 · see citing works
Quantifying heterogeneity in a meta‐analysis
Higgins, J. P. T., & Thompson, S. G. (2002) · Statistics in Medicine · doi:10.1002/sim.1186 · Cited by 36,763 · see citing works
The Cochrane Collaboration's tool for assessing risk of bias in randomised trials
Higgins, J. P. T., Altman, D. G., Gotzsche, P. C., Juni, P., Moher, D., Oxman, A. D., Savovic, J., Schulz, K. F., Weeks, L., Sterne, J. A. C., et al. (2011) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.d5928 · Cited by 33,817 · see citing works
Conducting Meta-Analyses in <i>R</i> with the <b>metafor</b> Package
Viechtbauer, W. (2010) · Journal of Statistical Software · doi:10.18637/jss.v036.i03 · Cited by 20,464 · see citing works
How to perform a meta-analysis with R: a practical tutorial
Balduzzi, S., Rücker, G., & Schwarzer, G. (2019) · Evidence Based Mental Health · doi:10.1136/ebmental-2019-300117 · Cited by 5,827 · see citing works
Statistical Methods for Meta-Analysis.
Freeman, P. R., Hedges, L. V., & Olkin, I. (1986) · Biometrics · doi:10.2307/2531069 · Cited by 4,832 · see citing works
Assessing heterogeneity in meta-analysis: Q statistic or I² index?
Huedo-Medina, T. B., Sánchez-Meca, J., Marín-Martínez, F., & Botella, J. (2006) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.11.2.193 · Cited by 4,256 · see citing works
Plea for routinely presenting prediction intervals in meta-analysis.
IntHout, J., Ioannidis, J. P. A., Rovers, M. M., & Goeman, J. J. (2016) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2015-010247 · Cited by 2,264 · see citing works
Estimating effect sizes from pretest-posttest-control group designs
Morris, S. B. (2008) · Organizational Research Methods · doi:10.1177/1094428106291059 · Cited by 2,133 · see citing works
Epidemiology of anxiety disorders in the 21st century
Bandelow, B., & Michaelis, S. (2015) · Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.31887/dcns.2015.17.3/bbandelow · Cited by 2,079 · see citing works
What to add to nothing? Use and avoidance of continuity corrections in meta‐analysis of sparse data
J. Sweeting, M., J. Sutton, A., & C. Lambert, P. (2004) · Statistics in Medicine · doi:10.1002/sim.1761 · Cited by 1,734 · see citing works
Carl, E., Stein, A. T., Levihn-Coon, A., Pogue, J. R., Rothbaum, B., Emmelkamp, P., Asmundson, G. J. G., Carlbring, P., & Powers, M. B. (2019) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2018.08.003 · Cited by 889 · see citing works
The use of virtual reality technology in the treatment of anxiety and other psychiatric disorders
Maples-Keller, J. L., Bunnell, B. E., Kim, S.-J., & Rothbaum, B. O. (2017) · Harvard Review of Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/hrp.0000000000000138 · Cited by 862 · see citing works
Virtual reality for stroke rehabilitation
Laver, K. E., Lange, B., George, S., Deutsch, J. E., Saposnik, G., & Crotty, M. (2017) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd008349.pub4 · Cited by 800 · see citing works
Virtual reality exposure therapy in anxiety disorders: a quantitative meta-analysis
Opriş, D., Pintea, S., García-Palacios, A., Botella, C., Szamosközi, Ş., & David, D. (2012) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.20910 · Cited by 636 · see citing works
Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Virtual Reality in Pediatrics: Effects on Pain and Anxiety
Eijlers, R., Utens, E. M. W. J., Staals, L. M., de Nijs, P. F. A., Berghmans, J. M., Wijnen, R. M. H., Hillegers, M. H. J., Dierckx, B., & Legerstee, J. S. (2019) · Anesthesia & Analgesia · doi:10.1213/ane.0000000000004165 · Cited by 628 · see citing works
Cognitive-behavioral therapy for anxiety disorders: An update on the empirical evidence
Kaczkurkin, A. N., & Foa, E. B. (2015) · Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.31887/dcns.2015.17.3/akaczkurkin · Cited by 523 · see citing works
Virtual reality exposure therapy of anxiety disorders: A review
Krijn, M., Emmelkamp, P. M. G., Olafsson, R. P., & Biemond, R. (2004) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2004.04.001 · Cited by 492 · see citing works
Yang, X., Fang, Y., Chen, H., Zhang, T., Yin, X., Man, J., Yang, L., & Lü, M. (2021) · Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences · doi:10.1017/s2045796021000275 · Cited by 461 · see citing works
Freeman, D., Haselton, P., Freeman, J., Spanlang, B., Kishore, S., Albery, E., Denne, M., Brown, P., Slater, M., & Nickless, A. (2018) · The Lancet Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(18)30226-8 · Cited by 377 · see citing works
Virtual reality exposure therapy for social anxiety disorder: A randomized controlled trial.
Anderson, P. L., Price, M., Edwards, S. M., Obasaju, M. A., Schmertz, S. K., Zimand, E., & Calamaras, M. R. (2013) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0033559 · Cited by 371 · see citing works
Virtual reality therapy in mental health
Emmelkamp, P. M. G., & Meyerbröker, K. (2021) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-081219-115923 · Cited by 363 · see citing works
Bouchard, S., Dumoulin, S., Robillard, G., Guitard, T., Klinger, É., Forget, H., Loranger, C., & Roucaut, F. X. (2017) · British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.116.184234 · Cited by 354 · see citing works
Page, M. J., Sterne, J. A. C., Higgins, J. P. T., & Egger, M. (2021) · Research Synthesis Methods · doi:10.1002/jrsm.1468 · Cited by 294 · see citing works
Mataix-Cols, D., Fernández de la Cruz, L., Monzani, B., Rosenfield, D., Andersson, E., Pérez-Vigil, A., Frumento, P., de Kleine, R. A., Difede, J., Dunlop, B. W., et al. (2017) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2016.3955 · Cited by 288 · see citing works
Fodor, L. A., Coteț, C. D., Cuijpers, P., Szamoskozi, Ș., David, D., & Cristea, I. A. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-28113-6 · Cited by 284 · see citing works
Epidemiology of anxiety disorders: from surveys to nosology and back.
Stein, D. J., Scott, K. M., de Jonge, P., & Kessler, R. C. (2017) · Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.31887/dcns.2017.19.2/dstein · Cited by 283 · see citing works
Deacon, B. J., Farrell, N. R., Kemp, J. J., Dixon, L. J., Sy, J. T., Zhang, A. R., & McGrath, P. B. (2013) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2013.04.006 · Cited by 248 · see citing works
Virtual reality exposure therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD): a meta-analysis
Kothgassner, O. D., Goreis, A., Kafka, J. X., Van Eickels, R. L., Plener, P. L., & Felnhofer, A. (2019) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008198.2019.1654782 · Cited by 246 · see citing works
Boeldt, D., McMahon, E., McFaul, M., & Greenleaf, W. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00773 · Cited by 242 · see citing works
Kampmann, I. L., Emmelkamp, P. M. G., Hartanto, D., Brinkman, W.-P., Zijlstra, B. J. H., & Morina, N. (2016) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2015.12.016 · Cited by 226 · see citing works
Donker, T., Cornelisz, I., van Klaveren, C., van Straten, A., Carlbring, P., Cuijpers, P., & van Gelder, J.-L. (2019) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.0219 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
Lindner, P., Miloff, A., Fagernäs, S., Andersen, J., Sigeman, M., Andersson, G., Furmark, T., & Carlbring, P. (2019) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2018.07.003 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Virtual reality exposure therapy for social anxiety disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Horigome, T., Kurokawa, S., Sawada, K., Kudo, S., Shiga, K., Mimura, M., & Kishimoto, T. (2020) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291720003785 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
Miloff, A., Lindner, P., Dafgård, P., Deak, S., Garke, M., Hamilton, W., Heinsoo, J., Kristoffersson, G., Rafi, J., Sindemark, K., et al. (2019) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2019.04.004 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
Prediction interval in random-effects meta-analysis
Spineli, L. M., & Pandis, N. (2020) · American Journal of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics · doi:10.1016/j.ajodo.2019.12.011 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Effectiveness of Virtual Environment Desensitization in the Treatment of Agoraphobia
North, M. M., North, S. M., & Coble, J. R. (1996) · PRESENCE Virtual and Augmented Reality · doi:10.1162/pres.1996.5.3.346 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Handbook of Exposure Therapies
Richard, D. C. S., & Lauterbach, D. (2007) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-587421-2.x5000-5 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Maskey, M., Rodgers, J., Grahame, V., Glod, M., Honey, E., Kinnear, J., Labus, M., Milne, J., Minos, D., McConachie, H., et al. (2019) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-018-3861-x · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Gujjar, K. R., van Wijk, A., Kumar, R., & de Jongh, A. (2019) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2018.12.001 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Virtual Reality Therapy: An Effective Treatment for Psychological Disorders
North, M. M., North, S. M., & Coble, J. R. (1997) · Studies in health technology and informatics · doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-888-5-59 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Virtual und Augmented Reality (VR/AR)
(2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-58861-1 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Simon, N. M., Hofmann, S. G., Rosenfield, D., Hoeppner, S. S., Hoge, E. A., Bui, E., & Khalsa, S. B. S. (2021) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2020.2496 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Virtual reality exposure therapy in flight anxiety: a quantitative meta-analysis
Cardoş, R. A. I., David, O. A., & David, D. O. (2017) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2017.03.007 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Treating Anxiety in 2017: Optimizing Care to Improve Outcomes
Stein, M. B., & Craske, M. G. (2017) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.2017.6996 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Zhou, X., Zhang, Y., Furukawa, T. A., Cuijpers, P., Pu, J., Weisz, J. R., Yang, L., Hetrick, S. E., Del Giovane, C., Cohen, D., et al. (2019) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2018.3070 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Fear of falling: efficacy of virtual reality associated with serious games in elderly people
Levy, F., Rautureau, G., Komano, O., Millet, B., Jouvent, R., & Leboucher, P. (2016) · Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment · doi:10.2147/ndt.s97809 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Meyerbroeker, K., Morina, N., Kerkhof, G. A., & Emmelkamp, P. M. G. (2013) · Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics · doi:10.1159/000342715 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Reeves, R., Curran, D., Gleeson, A., & Hanna, D. (2022) · Behavior Modification · doi:10.1177/0145445521991102 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Virtual Reality and the Built Environment
Whyte, J. K., & Nikolić, D. (2018) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.1201/9781315618500 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Virtual Reality Exposure and Imaginal Exposure in the Treatment of Fear of Flying
Rus‐Calafell, M., Gutiérrez‐Maldonado, J., Botella, C., & Baños, R. (2013) · Behavior Modification · doi:10.1177/0145445513482969 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Jiang, M. Y. W., Upton, E., & Newby, J. M. (2020) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2020.07.076 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Pélissolo, A., Zaoui, M., Aguayo, G., Yao, S. N., Roche, S., Écochard, R., Gueyffier, F., Pull, C., Berthoz, A., Jouvent, R., et al. (2012) · HAL · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Immersive 3D exposure-based treatment for spider fear: A randomized controlled trial
Minns, S. A., Levihn‐Coon, A., Carl, E., Smits, J. A. J., Miller, W., Howard, D., Papini, S., Quiroz, S., Lee-Furman, E., Telch, M. J., et al. (2018) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2018.12.003 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Virtual Reality for Anxiety Disorders: Rethinking a Field in Expansion
Fernández‐Álvarez, J., Lernia, D. D., & Riva, G. (2020) · Advances in experimental medicine and biology · doi:10.1007/978-981-32-9705-0_21 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
The combined use of virtual reality exposure in the treatment of agoraphobia.
Pitti, C. T., Peñate, W., de la Fuente, J., Pérez, J. M. B., Roca-Sánchez, M. J., Acosta, L., Villaverde, M. L., & Gracia, R. (2015) · PubMed · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Obstacles to successful implementation of exposure therapy
Hembree, E. A., & Cahill, S. P. (2007) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-012587421-2/50018-1 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Einführung in Virtual und Augmented Reality
Dörner, R., Broll, W., Jung, B., Grimm, P., & Göbel, M. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-58861-1_1 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Lorenzo, M. G., Castro, W. P., González, C. T. P., Pérez, J. M. B., Portero, J. A. D. L. F., & Marco, R. G. (2011) · DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Dissemination of Exposure Therapy in Clinical Practice: How to Handle the Barriers?
Neudeck, P., & Einsle, F. (2012) · Exposure Therapy · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-3342-2_3 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Exposure Therapy for Children with Anxiety and OCD
(2020) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/c2017-0-04097-1 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Treatment of Storm Fears Using Virtual Reality and Progressive Muscle Relaxation
Lima, J., McCabe‐Bennett, H., & Antony, M. M. (2017) · Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1017/s1352465817000674 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
World of Virtual Reality (VR) in Healthcare
Keswani, B., Mohapatra, A. G., Mishra, T. C., Keswani, P., Mohapatra, P. C. G., Akhtar, M. M., & Vijay, P. (2019) · Studies in computational intelligence · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-35252-3_1 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Overcoming challenges in exposure therapy
Canella, R., Essoe, J. K.-Y., Grados, M. A., & Mcguire, J. F. (2020) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-815915-6.00016-0 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
2 of the 66 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Torous, J., Linardon, J., Goldberg, S. B., Sun, S., Bell, I., Nicholas, J., Hassan, L., Hua, Y., Milton, A., & Firth, J. (2025) · World Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/wps.21299 · Cited by 323 · see citing works
Advances in the use of virtual reality to treat mental health conditions
Bell, I. H., Pot-Kolder, R., Rizzo, A., Rus-Calafell, M., Cardi, V., Cella, M., Ward, T., Riches, S., Reinoso, M., Thompson, A., et al. (2024) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-024-00334-9 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
An Overview of Tools and Technologies for Anxiety and Depression Management Using AI
Pavlopoulos, A., Rachiotis, T., & Maglogiannis, I. G. (2024) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app14199068 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Ramos, G., Hernandez-Ramos, R., Taylor, M. E., & Schueller, S. M. (2024) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2024.04.004 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Zeng, W., Xu, J., Yu, J., & Chu, X. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1553290 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Anser, M. K., Nabi, A. A., Ahmad, I., Abro, M. M. Q., & Zaman, K. (2025) · Health care science · doi:10.1002/hcs2.70018 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Kang, X., Zhang, Y., Sun, C., Zhang, J., Che, Z., Zang, J., & Zhang, R. (2025) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/58384 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Immersive technologies for depression care: scoping review
Reategui-Rivera, C. M., Villarreal-Zegarra, D., De La Cruz-Torralva, K., Díaz-Sánchez, P., & Finkelstein, J. (2024) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/56056 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Effectiveness of telemedicine on common mental disorders: An umbrella review and meta-meta-analysis
Chen, J., Li, C., An, K., Dong, X., Liu, J., & Wu, H. Y. (2024) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2024.108325 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Self-guided virtual reality therapy for anxiety: A systematic review
Graham, W. M., Drinkwater, R., Kelson, J. N., & Kabir, M. A. (2025) · International Journal of Medical Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.ijmedinf.2025.105902 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Using Virtual Reality to Promote Self‐Identity Reconstruction as the Main Focus of Therapy
Garcia-Gutierrez, A., Montesano, A., & Feixas, G. (2025) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.23771 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Cross, S. P. M., Mangelsdorf, S. N., Valentine, L., O’Sullivan, S., McEnery, C., Scott, I., Gilbertson, T., Louis, S., Myer, J., Liu, P., et al. (2025) · Internet Interventions · doi:10.1016/j.invent.2025.100849 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Exposure Therapy in Mixed Reality for Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
Miegel, F. S., Jelinek, L., Lohse, L., Moritz, S., Blömer, J., Juckoff, K., Yassari, A. H., & Rolvien, L. (2025) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2025.11488 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Virtual Reality: Challenges and Perspectives in Mental Health
Machado, S. E. D. C., Paes, F., Ferreira-Garcia, R., Gonçalves, L. L., Carta, M. G., Appolinário, J. C., & Nardi, A. E. (2025) · ALPHA PSYCHIATRY · doi:10.31083/ap47536 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Diemer, J., Kothgassner, O. D., Herrmann, M. J., & Zwanzger, P. (2023) · Der Nervenarzt · doi:10.1007/s00115-023-01570-9 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Berkhof, M., van der Stouwe, E. C. D., Pot-Kolder, R., van der Gaag, M., Veling, W., & Geraets, C. N. W. (2024) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/acps.13713 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Cyborg Children: A Systematic Literature Review on the Experience of Children Using Extended Reality
Everri, M., & Heitmayer, M. (2024) · Children · doi:10.3390/children11080984 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Lacey, C. J., Frampton, C., & Beaglehole, B. (2024) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2024.10.032 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Roncero, D., Moreno‐Fernández, R. D., & Fernández-Moreno, Á. (2025) · Aggression and Violent Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.avb.2025.102034 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Malbos, É., Chichery, N., Borwell, B., Weindel, G., Molitor, J., Einig-Iscain, M., Seimandi, J., & Lançon, C. (2025) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm14041351 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
ThompSon, N., Pan, X., & Ruiz, M. H. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics · doi:10.1109/tvcg.2025.3549843 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Kim, H., Han, E. C., Muntz, P. B., & Kemp, J. J. (2025) · Current Psychiatry Reports · doi:10.1007/s11920-025-01624-6 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
A Bibliometric Study of the Evidence About Applying Virtual Reality in Mental Health Care
Gao, S., Pan, S., Wang, A., & Tao, Y. (2025) · Journal of Multidisciplinary Healthcare · doi:10.2147/jmdh.s536946 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Research progress on chronic stress stimulation and gastric cancer metastasis
Chen, J., Zhang, Y., Zhang, T., Wen, Z., Li, Y., Ye, Y., Zhou, Z., & Jia, G. (2025) · Discover Oncology · doi:10.1007/s12672-025-03950-w · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Clara, L. D. (2024) · Advances in medical technologies and clinical practice book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-1123-3.ch009 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Settling the Score: Virtual Reality as a Tool to Enhance Trauma-Focused Therapy for PTSD
Rizzo, A., Hartholt, A., & Mozgai, S. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-56537-3_14 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Advancing Mental Health with Immersive Virtual Reality: Benefits, Challenges, and Emerging Trends
Gkoumas, C., Bourikas, L., Mantadelis, T., & Karakasidou, E. (2024) · IEEE International Symposium on Mixed and Augmented Reality Adjunct (ISMAR-Adjunct) · doi:10.1109/ismar-adjunct64951.2024.00064 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Using iVR to deliver optimal psychotherapy experience—current perspectives on VRET for acrophobia
Varšová, K. K., & Juřík, V. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1491622 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Kubo, T., & Kato, T. A. (2025) · Current Opinion in Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/yco.0000000000000996 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Wüllner, S., Hecker, T., Flottmann, P., & Hermenau, K. (2025) · PLOS mental health. · doi:10.1371/journal.pmen.0000270 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
González‐Pérez, A., Díaz-Sanahuja, L., Matey-Sanz, M., Osma, J., Granell, C., Bretón-López, J. M., & Casteleyn, S. (2024) · Digital Health · doi:10.1177/20552076241283942 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Abdallah, Y. K. (2025) · Architecture · doi:10.3390/architecture5040085 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Cheng, M. H. C., Chan, C. K. J., Yeung, Y. T. A., Wong, L. M. E., Cheung, W. H. P., Chu, K. K., Ho, S. Y. J., & Chan, C. K. J. (2025) · Clinical Simulation in Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.ecns.2025.101849 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Christensen, M. J., Vernal, D. L., Jeppesen, U. N., Hjorthøj, C. R., Mainz, J., Pinkham, A. E., Austin, S. F., Veling, W., Ward, T., Nordentoft, M., et al. (2026) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291726103870 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
AI-based treatment of psychological conditions: the potential use, benefits and drawbacks
Baber, M., & Baker, B. (2025) · Exploration of Digital Health Technologies · doi:10.37349/edht.2025.101143 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Faria, S., Fonseca, S. M., Marques, A. J., & Queirós, C. M. L. (2025) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare13121434 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Augmented reality as an aid to behavior therapy for anxiety disorders: A narrative review
Rajkumar, R. P. (2024) · Cureus · doi:10.7759/cureus.69454 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Virtual reality technology in the treatment of anxiety – progress and future challenges
Porter, R., Beaglehole, B., & Baghaei, N. (2023) · Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics · doi:10.1080/14737175.2023.2289574 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Kelly, K., Pretzsch, J., Altenburger, L., Siebert, J., Tzabazis, A., Lindert, J., Vonthein, R., & Tüshaus, L. (2025) · British journal of surgery · doi:10.1093/bjs/znaf075 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
VR for Specific Phobias: a Perspective on Adaptive and Physiological Feedback-Based Exposure Therapy
Ciurlia, M., Paiano, M., Rubino, M., D’Errico, G., Pellegrino, G., Barba, M. C., & Paolis, L. T. D. (2025) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-97763-3_20 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Romeo, V. M. (2025) · Bioengineering · doi:10.3390/bioengineering12111257 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Stone, J., Baker, L., Altvater, R. A., & Ong, T. (2025) · Journal of Medical Extended Reality · doi:10.1177/29941520251394885 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Li, Y. L., Shen, J., & Huang, G. (2026) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2025.1735471 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Validation of an Upgraded Virtual Reality Platform Designed for Real-Time Dialogical Psychotherapies
Simoes-Gomes, T., Potvin, S., Giguère, S., Beaudoin, M., Phraxayavong, K., & Dumais, A. (2025) · BioMedInformatics · doi:10.3390/biomedinformatics5010004 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Virtuelle Realitäten: Neue Therapiemöglichkeiten bei Angststörungen
Schöttler, M., & Felnhofer, A. (2025) · KJP up2date · doi:10.1055/a-2409-9510 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Rankhambe, D., Ainapure, B., Appasani, B., Srinivasulu, A., & Bizon, N. (2024) · Bioengineering · doi:10.3390/bioengineering11121251 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The Use of Mobile Apps in Adolescent Psychotherapy: Assessment of Psychotherapists’ Perspectives
Wüllner, S., Hermenau, K., Hecker, T., & Siniatchkin, M. (2025) · JMIR Formative Research · doi:10.2196/65788 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The Impact of Adding Multisensory Stimulation to a Fear of Heights Virtual Reality Experience
Ribé-Viñes, J. M., Gutiérrez‐Maldonado, J., Zabolipour, Z., Aguilar‐Gil, M., & Ferrer‐García, M. (2025) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.70107 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Yin, C., McIntosh, J., & Marques, B. (2025) · Exploration of Digital Health Technologies · doi:10.37349/edht.2025.101160 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Xu, H. G., Duff, J. S., & Binnie, V. (2025) · International Emergency Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.ienj.2025.101692 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Chen, C.-F., Gao, Y.-H., Fang, Q., Zhou, Y., Liu, Y., Wu, J., Chen, H., Wang, L., & Chen, L. (2025) · Chinese Journal of Integrative Medicine · doi:10.1007/s11655-025-3942-6 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Wu, F., Wu, Y., Xing, Y., Cai, W., & Zhang, R. (2025) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/81865 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Dahò, M., & Monzani, D. (2026) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-025-08959-6 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Upadhyay, R. K., Barman, D., & Bhardwaj, K. (2026) · Nonlinear Dynamics · doi:10.1007/s11071-026-12223-2 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Lecturers' Self-efficacy in the use of Artificial intelligence: TVET lecturers’ perspectives
Omeh, C. B. (2026) · Computers in Human Behavior Artificial Humans · doi:10.1016/j.chbah.2026.100294 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Bunnell, B. E., Schuler, K. R., Craggs, J. G., Welch, B. M., & Ong, T. (2026) · JMIR Formative Research · doi:10.2196/84670 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Vinces, C. J. C. (2024) · Revista Científica y Arbitrada de Psicología NUNA YACHAY · doi:10.56124/nuna-yachay.v6i11.005 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Editorial: Digital tools for relaxation and stress management: use, effectiveness and implementation
Bernaerts, S., & Lindner, P. (2024) · Frontiers in Digital Health · doi:10.3389/fdgth.2024.1366065
Clara, L. D. (2024) · Advances in medical education, research, and ethics (AMERE) book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-5493-3.ch013
Gutiérrez, P., Silva, M. O., Hidalgo, M. G., Gutiérrez, J. A., & Gutiérrez, F. J. (2024) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-60695-3_13
Ethische Herausforderungen einer Telepsychiatrie
Willms, J., Sader, A., Juckel, G., Mavrogiorgou, P., & Krämer, M. (2024) · Fortschritte der Neurologie · Psychiatrie · doi:10.1055/a-2452-8558
Virtual Coach Platform for Rehabilitation - Platform Overview and Its Assessment
Vulović, A., Ilić, Đ., Filipović, F., & Filipović, N. (2024) · IEEE International Conference on Bioinformatics and Bioengineering (BIBE) · doi:10.1109/bibe63649.2024.10820470
Réalité virtuelle, intelligence artificielle et métaverses en santé mentale
Malbos, É. (2025) · Soins Cadres · doi:10.1016/j.scad.2024.12.009
Melis, F., Sánchez, R., González, L. M., Pellegrini, P., Fuentes, J. A., & Nieto, R. R. (2025) · Psychiatry International · doi:10.3390/psychiatryint6020058
Hallmann, M., Peperkorn, N., Vona, F., Shiban, Y., & Voigt‐Antons, J. (2025) · doi:10.2196/preprints.81537
Wu, F., Wu, Y., Xing, Y., Zhang, R., & Cai, W. (2025) · doi:10.2196/preprints.81865
Mazzotti, E., Mazzuca, F., Lucidi, F., Specchia, M., Mancini, M., & Chirico, A. (2025) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-6911957/v1
Pardini, S., Martínez, O. N., & Mayora, O. (2025) · JMIR Pediatrics and Parenting · doi:10.2196/83621 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Störungsspezifische Behandlung von Angsterkrankungen
Rausch, M., Pyrkosch, L., & Wehrheim, A. (2026) · Die Psychotherapie · doi:10.1007/s00278-025-00822-0
Du, J., You, L., & Zhang, J. (2026) · Computer Animation and Virtual Worlds · doi:10.1002/cav.70101
Wessels, M., Valuch, C., Schacht, A., & Kulke, L. (2026) · Virtual Reality · doi:10.1007/s10055-026-01330-5
Virtual reality: A shift of theoretical focus in the study of language processing
Repetto, C., & Scerrati, E. (2026) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/bs.plm.2026.02.003
Liu, L., Ziling, L. I. N., Chen, X., Hou, Y., Liu, Y., Xiangbin, W. A. N. G., & Hou, M. (2026) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0340918
Folgieri, R., Lucchiari, C., Gričar, S., & Baldigara, T. (2026) · Computers · doi:10.3390/computers15060384
Hu, S., 邢淑云, Huang, W., Li, Y. F., Tan, X., Nie, R., Zhang, Q., Zhou, X., Cao, X., Yuan, D., et al. (2026) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2026.06.024
Hallmann, M., Peperkorn, N., Vona, F., Shiban, Y., & Voigt-Antons, J.-N. (2025) · JMIR XR and spatial computing · doi:10.2196/81537
Cho, J., Kim, H., Cho, C.-Y., Kim, G., Ji, H.-G., Jeon, M., Jung, D., Lee, H., Hur, J., & Cho, C. (2026) · Digital Health · doi:10.1177/20552076261471339
Addressing Self-Criticism: The Development of a VR Experience
Oliveira, E., Martins, D., Rodrigues, N., Rodrigues, H., Moreira, M., Rodrigues, M., Mendes, I., & Goncalves, M. (2026) · SeGAH ... IEEE ... International Conference on Serious Games and Applications for Health/IEEE International Conference on Serious Games and Applications for Health · doi:10.1109/segah69272.2026.11653317
Virtual reality hypnosis during protective isolation: a parallel group randomized trial
Doncker, A., Cahu, X., Bareau, B., & Masset, S. (2026) · Supportive Care in Cancer · doi:10.1007/s00520-026-11099-7
A Study of the Effects and Design of VR Painting for Anxiety Relief
Li, Z. (2026) · International Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Virtual Reality and Interaction Design · doi:10.1145/3820915.3821036
Stepping into fear safely: A case study on mixed reality exposure in spider phobia
Moritz, S., Meinhart, A., Miegel, F. S., Blömer, J., & Rojahn, K. M. (2026) · Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic · doi:10.1521/bumc.2026.90.3.221
Virtual Reality for Social Recovery
Pot-Kolder, R., Nicholas, J., Tennant, M., Spark, J., Louis, S., Ellinghaus, C., van der Gaag, M., & Bell, I. H. (2026) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-32552-5_22
Social Virtual Exposure in Body Dysmorphic Disorder Using 360° Video Environments
Schoenenberg, K., Münnich, M. K., Raake, A., Fremerey, S., Pedersen, A., & Martin, A. (2026) · International Journal of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy · doi:10.1007/s41811-026-00293-4
Obuća, F., Ünal‐Aydın, P., & Aydın, O. (2026) · Clinical and Experimental Health Sciences · doi:10.33808/clinexphealthsci.1760552
Yang, X., Zhang, J., Li, W., Xu, J., & Yu, X. (2026) · British Journal of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjdp.70073
- Authors
- Schröder, D., Wrona, K. J., Müller, F., Heinemann, S., Fischer, F., & Dockweiler, C.
- Affiliations
- Universitätsmedizin Göttingen (DE)
- Bielefeld University (DE)
- Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Schröder, Dominik
- ORCID
- Venue
- Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2023-12
- Volume
- 81
- Pages
- 101893
- ISSN
- 0005-7916 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4382753544
- Cited by
- 85
- References
- 66
- Citations by year
- 2026: 23 · 2025: 39 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 2
- FWCI
- 2.93
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PUB – Publications at Bielefeld University (Bielefeld University) (submittedVersion)
- GoeScholar The Publication Server of the Georg-August-Universität Göttingen (Georg-August-Universität Göttingen) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- Ministerium für Kultur und Wissenschaft des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Virtual Reality Applications and Impacts
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Digital Mental Health Interventions
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- virtual reality, anxiety disorders, virtual reality exposure therapy, specific phobia, social anxiety disorder, agoraphobia, panic disorder, anxiety symptoms, head-mounted displays, treatment effect comparison
- MeSH terms
- Phobia, Social, Virtual Reality, Anxiety, Anxiety Disorders, Humans, Phobic Disorders, Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic, Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
