The evolving field of digital mental health: current evidence and implementation issues for smartphone apps, generative artificial intelligence, and virtual reality
Open accessAbstract
The expanding domain of digital mental health is transitioning beyond traditional telehealth to incorporate smartphone apps, virtual reality, and generative artificial intelligence, including large language models. While industry setbacks and methodological critiques have highlighted gaps in evidence and challenges in scaling these technologies, emerging solutions rooted in co‐design, rigorous evaluation, and implementation science offer promising pathways forward. This paper underscores the dual necessity of advancing the scientific foundations of digital mental health and increasing its real‐world applicability through five themes. First, we discuss recent technological advances in digital phenotyping, virtual reality, and generative artificial intelligence. Progress in this latter area, specifically designed to create new outputs such as conversations and images, holds unique potential for the mental health field. Given the spread of smartphone apps, we then evaluate the evidence supporting their utility across various mental health contexts, including well‐being, depression, anxiety, schizophrenia, eating disorders, and substance use disorders. This broad view of the field highlights the need for a new generation of more rigorous, placebo‐controlled, and real‐world studies. We subsequently explore engagement challenges that hamper all digital mental health tools, and propose solutions, including human support, digital navigators, just‐in‐time adaptive interventions, and personalized approaches. We then analyze implementation issues, emphasizing clinician engagement, service integration, and scalable delivery models. We finally consider the need to ensure that innovations work for all people and thus can bridge digital health disparities, reviewing the evidence on tailoring digital tools for historically marginalized populations and low‐ and middle‐income countries. Regarding digital mental health innovations as tools to augment and extend care, we conclude that smartphone apps, virtual reality, and large language models can positively impact mental health care if deployed correctly.
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Wong, K. P., Lai, C. Y. Y., & Qin, J. (2023) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2023.04.043 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Kerber, A., Beintner, I., Burchert, S., & Knaevelsrud, C. (2023) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/45068 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Lee, C., Mohebbi, M., O’Callaghan, E., & Winsberg, M. E. (2024) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/58129 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Linardon, J., Shatte, A. B. R., McClure, Z., & Fuller‐Tyszkiewicz, M. (2022) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291722001477 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Self-citationJuarascio, A. S., Presseller, E. K., Srivastava, P., Manasse, S. M., & Forman, E. M. (2022) · Behavior Modification · doi:10.1177/01454455221109434 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Interdisciplinary perspectives on digital technologies for global mental health
Kuhn, E. M., Saleem, M., Klein, T., Köhler, C., Fuhr, D. C., Lahutina, S., Minarik, A., Musesengwa, R., Neubauer, K., Olisaeloka, L., et al. (2024) · PLOS Global Public Health · doi:10.1371/journal.pgph.0002867 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Macrynikola, N., Nguyen, N. S., Lane, E., Yen, S., & Torous, J. B. (2023) · NEJM Catalyst · doi:10.1056/cat.23.0100 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Self-citationÁlvarez‐Jiménez, M., Nicholas, J., Valentine, L., Liu, P., Mangelsdorf, S. N., Baker, S., Gilbertson, T., O'Loughlin, G., McEnery, C., McGorry, P. D., et al. (2024) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/acps.13751 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Self-citationStandardizing and Scaffolding Health Care AI-Chatbot Evaluation: Systematic Review
Hua, Y., Xia, W., Bates, D., Hartstein, G. L., Kim, H. T., Li, M., Nelson, B. W., Stromeyer IV, C., King, D., Suh, J., et al. (2025) · JMIR AI · doi:10.2196/69006 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Self-citationGlobal mental health in 2015: 95% implementation
Silva, M. J. D., & Ryan, G. K. (2016) · The Lancet Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(15)00567-2 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Experiences of Serving and Ex-Serving Members With the PTSD Coach Australia App: Mixed Methods Study
Shakespeare‐Finch, J., Alichniewicz, K., Strodl, E. S., Brown, K., Quinn, C. A., Hides, L. M., White, A., Gossage, G., Poerio, L., Batras, D., et al. (2020) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/18447 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
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- Hua Y, Na H, Li Z et al. Applying and evaluating large language models in men tal health care: a scoping review of human assessed generative tasks. arXiv 2024; 2408.11288.
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Ali, M., Ali, S., Abbas, Q., Abbas, Z., & Lee, S. (2025) · Digital Health · doi:10.1177/20552076251395548 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Do generative <scp>AI</scp> chatbots increase psychosis risk?
Keshavan, M., Torous, J., & Yassin, W. (2026) · World Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/wps.70017 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Self-citationCuijpers, P. J., Harrer, M., & Furukawa, T. A. (2026) · World Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/wps.70002 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“It is possible that an extension of regulatory pathways for prescription digital therapeutics could lead to an increase in industry sponsored trials and further speed up research in this area 113 .”
Chau, L. W., Lam, R. W. M., Minas, H., Hayashi, K., Nguyen, V. C., & O’Neil, J. (2025) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/68296 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“Estimates indicate that >10,000 mental health–related apps are available [14], with most focused on depression and anxiety [6,15].”
Dwyer, B., Flathers, M., Sano, A., Dempsey, A. G., Cipriani, A., Gazi, A. H., Hill, B., Gorban, C., Rodríguez, C. I., Stromeyer, C., et al. (2025) · NPP—Digital Psychiatry and Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/s44277-025-00049-6 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Self-citationEfficacy of a Conversational AI Agent for Psychiatric Symptoms and Digital Therapeutic Alliance
Shoshani, A., Gurfinkel, B., Kor, A., Ben-Haim, Y., Kanarek, O., Segev, R., Shafir, O., & Arbel, R. (2026) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2026.6713 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Transdiagnostic-focused apps for depression and anxiety: a meta-analysis
Linardon, J., Anderson, C., Messer, M., Liu, C., & Torous, J. B. (2025) · npj Digital Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41746-025-01860-3 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Self-citationPsychiatry in the age of AI: transforming theory, practice, and medical education
Zhang, X., & Zhang, X. (2025) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2025.1660448 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Linardon, J., & Torous, J. B. (2025) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.24468 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Recent research suggests that there is growing interest in smartphone-based intervention and monitoring tools among individuals with eating disorders (Torous et al. 2025).”
Self-citationStrudwick, G., Kassam, I., Torous, J. B., & Patenaude, S. (2025) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/78791 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Across clinical practice, research, and the technology industry, interest in using digital mental health innovations has increased significantly [3-5].”
Self-citationTorous, J. B., Ledley, K. T., Gorban, C., Strudwick, G., Schwarz, J., Choudhary, S., Emerson, M. R., Patriquin, M. A., Dempsey, A. G., Bantjes, J. R., et al. (2025) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/84501 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“As research on digital mental health tools, such as apps, virtual reality, and artificial intelligence (AI), continues to expand and suggest benefits, clinical interest has also increased, yet the gap between research and real-world implementation remains stark [1].”
Self-citationUptake, Adherence, and Attrition in Clinical Trials of Depression and Anxiety Apps
Liu, C., Torous, J. B., Fuller‐Tyszkiewicz, M., Messer, M., Anderson, C., Soliman, O. M., & Linardon, J. (2025) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2025.3439 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Self-citationA Paradigm Shift in Progress: Generative AI’s Evolving Role in Mental Health Care
Torous, J. B., & Cipriani, A. (2025) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/82369 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“The real-world adoption of previous mental health technologies, such as apps and VR, by patients and clinicians has been limited [3].”
Self-citationRollwage, M., McFadyen, J., Juechems, K., Balogh, A., Pisupati, S., Mircea, M.-T., Hauser, T. U., Prichard, G., & Harper, R. J. (2026) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41591-026-04278-w · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-026-04278-w have not investigated what specific LLM behaviors drive these improvements and whether the observed benefits reflect genuine therapeutic capabilities of the LLMs, placebo effects or other influences 25 .”
InfluentialTrends in digital mental health interventions: A 20-year bibliometric analysis
Zhang, B., Lau, L. Y., & Chen, Y. (2025) · Digital Health · doi:10.1177/20552076251403203 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Elmer, T., Wolf, M., Snippe, E., & Scholz, U. (2025) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/74103 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Unfortunately, there are currently no established standards for JITAI baseline durations in mental health, as this research is still in early stages [68,69].”
Linardon, J., Messer, M., Anderson, C., Liu, C., McClure, Z., Jarman, H. K., Goldberg, S. B., & Torous, J. (2025) · BMJ Mental Health · doi:10.1136/bmjment-2025-301787 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“7 By analysing vast amounts of data derived from clinical case notes, session transcripts,”
Self-citationCalderone, A., Latella, D., Fauci, E. L., Puleo, R., Sergi, A., Francesco, M. D., Mauro, M., Foti, A., Salemi, L., & Calabrò, R. S. (2025) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.70191 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Telepsychiatry, access, and equity: accelerating mental health care for rural and low-income youth
Sharma, M., Sharma, V., & Peeples, D. A. (2025) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2025.1698682 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Morrin, H., Yeung, J. A., Agnew, Z. K., Østergaard, S. D., & Pollak, T. A. (2026) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/91454 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“People use them for practical advice, companionship, and mental health support [1,2].”
Transforming artificial intelligence into artificial wisdom
Jeste, D. V., Paulus, M. P., Alexopoulos, G. S., Barnard, M., Otte, W. M., Satake, Y., Na, P. J., Torous, J. B., Prodan, A., & Occhipinti, J. (2026) · Nature Mental Health · doi:10.1038/s44220-026-00640-6 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“The next generation of digital tools needs to be better co-designed, personalized, culturally and ethically contextualized, and made responsive to patient needs 17 .”
Self-citationVlaescu, G., Carlbring, P., & Andersson, G. (2026) · Internet Interventions · doi:10.1016/j.invent.2026.100955 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“…that conversational AI and chatbot interventions can produce small to moderate effects on symptoms of depression and anxiety (Li et al., 2023), although concerns about safety, therapeutic alliance (Carlbring et al., 2023), and the handling of crisis situations remain (Torous et al., 2025).”
Beyond counting clicks: rethinking engagement in digital mental health
Cipriani, A., Ward, T., Lambe, S., Ostinelli, E. G., Blease, C. R., Gant, T., Gold, S. M., Holmes, E. A., Paccoud, I., Vinnikova, A., et al. (2025) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.2025.10485 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Self-citationDo antipsychotics work in people with schizophrenia? A review of outcomes and effect sizes
Correll, C. U. (2025) · CNS Spectrums · doi:10.1017/s1092852925100461 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Linardon, J., Torous, J. B., Messer, M., Liu, C., Bell, I. H., Nicholas, J. A., & Goldberg, S. B. (2025) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2025.116864 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“…varying degrees of personalisation, ranging from simple surface-level tailoring (e.g., use of the individual ’ s name) to more substantive adaptations, such as recommending specific modules or exercises based on users ’ reported symptoms, preferences, or progress (Linardon and Torous, 2025).”
Self-citationMesser, M., Wade, T. D., Anderson, C., Bolger, T., Ng, G., Bothe, H., & Linardon, J. (2025) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.70014 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationJoseph, A. P. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1611988 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Sustained engagement with a digital youth mental health platform: A mixed-methods study
Valentine, L., Nicholas, J., Sorenson, R. P., Chen, N. A., McEnery, C., Louis, S., Cross, S. P. M., Mangelsdorf, S. N., O’Sullivan, S., Wren, T. W., et al. (2025) · Internet Interventions · doi:10.1016/j.invent.2025.100899 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Despite the promise of DMHIs, one of the most persistent implementation challenges is low engagement (Fleming et al., 2018; de Beurs et al., 2017; Lipschitz et al., 2022; Torous et al., 2025).”
InfluentialSelf-citationArnautovska, U., Ritchie, G., Soole, R., Baker, A., Korman, N., Bialkowski, A., Siskind, D. J., & Milton, A. C. (2026) · BJPsych Open · doi:10.1192/bjo.2025.10954 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“…of artificial intelligence or artificial intelligence-driven chatboxes, which are becoming increasingly prevalent within digital mental health, 18 may serve a minority of users, there is a risk of expanding the complexity of the intervention at the expense of losing the current overall…”
Self-citationCraddock, N., Smith, H. G., Linardon, J., Tylka, T. L., & Diedrichs, P. C. (2026) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2026.102042 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Self-citationWitte, N. A. J. D., Best, P., Torous, J. B., Mulvenna, M. D., Assche, E. V., Mathiasen, K., Kleiboer, A. M., Carlbring, P., & Daele, T. V. (2026) · Internet Interventions · doi:10.1016/j.invent.2026.100927 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“When used in a self-guided manner, smartphone apps show some effects but engagement remains a persistent challenge (Torous et al., 2025).”
Self-citationGenerative AI as a de facto mental health provider: a policy brief and urgent call for regulation
Refoua, E., Gigi, K., Levkovich, I., Shoval, D. H., Elyoseph, Z., Tsafrir, I., Pen, O., Angert, T., & Haber, Y. (2026) · Frontiers in Digital Health · doi:10.3389/fdgth.2026.1708806 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Refusing to Fall Behind: The Ethical Obligation to Embrace AI in Mental Health Social Work
Flaherty, H. B., & Krishnan, P. (2025) · Journal of Evidence-Based Social Work · doi:10.1080/26408066.2025.2553018 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Child and adolescent psychiatry: challenges, solutions, opportunities, and future directions
Cortese, S., Arango, C., Aymerich, C., Catalan, A., Chetouani, M., Cohen, D., Coghill, D., Gabellone, A., Iniesta, R., Kadan, A., et al. (2026) · World Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/wps.70044 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Moving away from the traditional “one- size- fits-all” model, this aspirational approach aims to enhance diagnostic accuracy, optimize treatment efficacy, and minimize adverse effects 193 .”
Pan, X., Zhao, Y. C., Huang, W., Wu, J., Liang, J., Xie, Y., Chen, Y., & Zhao, W. (2025) · Archives of Dermatological Research · doi:10.1007/s00403-025-04417-2 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Strategies to Safeguard Mental Health Among Medical and Allied Health Trainees: A Narrative Review
Obeagu, E. I. (2025) · Advances in Medical Education and Practice · doi:10.2147/amep.s564964 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“44 Another important direction is interprofessional wellbeing initiatives.”
Busshart, L., Petrovic, M., Amin, R., & Hegerl, U. (2025) · JMIR mhealth and uhealth · doi:10.2196/70840 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“This period marks a notable shift from early feasibility and pilot work to more sophisticated methods, including multisite validation, machine learning–based prediction models, and integration of wearables and smartphone sensors [25].”
Chew, J., Frings, D., Reavey, P., & Allabyrne, C. (2026) · Digital Health · doi:10.1177/20552076251406323 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Kállai, J., Rózsa, S., Bandi, S. A., Varga, J. É., Török, I. A., Szendi, I., Hartung, I., Kertész, Á., Somlai, E. H., Tényi, T., et al. (2026) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2026.03.028 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
A framework for clinical validation of generative artificial intelligence therapeutics
Galatzer‐Levy, I. R., Tomašev, N., Rodríguez, C. I., & Torous, J. B. (2026) · World Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/wps.70067 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationO’Driscoll, C., O'Reilly, S., Jaremba, A. J., Nolte, T., & Shaikh, M. (2025) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/79296 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Future advancements in technologies like digital sensors, combined with natural language processing and machine learning, will enhance EMIs to become more finely tuned and responsive to individual needs [9].”
Investigating mental wellbeing self-care in higher education using BERTopic modeling
Ali, M., van Berkel, N., Tag, B., Paananen, V., Oppenlaender, J., Yatani, K., & Hosio, S. J. (2025) · Discover Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s44192-025-00323-1 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Emerging lines of work emphasize co-design with students, rigorous evaluation in real-world campus settings, and hybrid models that combine digital support with campus services [100, 104].”
Ophir, Y., & Rosenberg, H. (2026) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-025-06441-z · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“This includes requiring clinical trials and pilot studies with standardized measures for mental health outcomes (Torous et al., 2025), such as symptom reduction and quality of life, along with comprehensive safety evaluations.”
Reyes, A. D. L., Talbott, E., Yusuf, A., Dryburgh, N. S. J., & Goodman, K. L. (2026) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2026.102705 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Caffieri, A., Barquero‐Jimenez, C., Roberto, C.-C., Paula, D.-J.-I., Gil-Cosano, J. J., Goossens, L., Francisco, J. N.-C., Ureña-Lorenzo, A., Gómez‐Gómez, I., & Motrico, E. (2026) · International Journal of Medical Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.ijmedinf.2026.106290 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Arnautovska, U., Ritchie, G., Korman, N., Menon, A., Milton, A. C., Varnfield, M., Kelly, J. T., Jansen, P., Baker, A., Kisely, S. R., et al. (2026) · BJPsych Open · doi:10.1192/bjo.2026.11032 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“40 Taken together, the positive changes demonstrated in the current study corroborate increasing evidence that external prompts and behavioural nudges, through apps and text messages, can provide reminders and practical strategies to improve T2D illness self-management among people with SSD. 7…”
Self-citationLai, L., Tang, Y., Song, G., Long, Y., Chen, C., Chen, C., & Li, W. (2026) · Acta Neurologica Belgica · doi:10.1007/s13760-026-03064-2 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Yang, H., Chang, F., Muroi, F., Liu, Z., Zhang, W., & Cai, J. (2026) · Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics · doi:10.1159/000552072 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
AI-driven proactive music therapy in the era of digital mental health
Li, F., Zhang, C., Liu, C., Jia, H., & Wang, Z. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1832950 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Strategies for sustainable adoption of e-health tools for digital mental health services
Musakuro, R. N., & Gie, L. (2025) · SA Journal of Human Resource Management · doi:10.4102/sajhrm.v23i0.3053 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Evaluation of AI-based mental health interventions using the grey relational analysis
Anjum, R., Daud, S., Bhatti, G. A., & Saddique, F. (2025) · Grey Systems Theory and Application · doi:10.1108/gs-03-2025-0031 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
He, Y. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-24104-6 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“In addition, Rudnik et al. reported that cognitive flexibility mediated the relationship between stress, fatigue, and empathy among medical students 15,16 .”
Attanasio, F., Fazio, V., Antonini, C., Lanzano, N., Obumselu, G., Prato, M., Flutti, E., Pacchioni, F., Fregna, L., Franchini, L. A. M., et al. (2025) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2025.11.039 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
The digital leap at VIMHANS: securing mental health services for tomorrow
Yadav, H., & Sagar, M. (2025) · Journal of Information Technology Case and Application Research · doi:10.1080/15228053.2025.2599705 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Grant, H., Vitkauskaite, E., Kalniunas, A., & Pappa, S. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1643042 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Neuropsychiatric Treatment in Functional Neurological Disorder: Foundations and Future
Gonsalvez, I., Lane, C. E., & Baslet, G. C. (2026) · Seminars in Neurology · doi:10.1055/a-2786-3694 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Su, K.-P., Chen, S. H.-C., & Chang, J. P. (2026) · Current Opinion in Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/yco.0000000000001082 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Liu, J. (2026) · Religions · doi:10.3390/rel17030378 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“These trials illustrated that digital men‑ tal health is moving beyond telehealth toward smartphone and generative‑AI experiences that embed reflection into everyday life (Torous et al. 2025).”
French, C., Sawyer, C. S., Fabian, H., Hassan, L., Sainsbury, J., Scrivano, L., Stubbs, B., Bucci, S., Torous, J. B., & Firth, J. (2026) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2026.03.018 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationStaples, L., Fisher, A. C., Dear, B. F., Nielssen, O. B., & Titov, N. (2026) · Frontiers in Digital Health · doi:10.3389/fdgth.2026.1761107 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Mlakar, I., Šafran, V., Plohl, N., Kumperščak, H. G., Močnik, S., Smogavc, Ž., & Smrke, U. (2026) · PLOS Digital Health · doi:10.1371/journal.pdig.0001069 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Overall, our findings support a complementary model of integration of digital solutions and AI in mental health, where technology-mediated screening serves as an accessible first step in assessment, informing subsequent human-led clinical decision-making and resource allocation [47].”
Liu, M., Lefèvre, C., & Chen, Y. A. (2026) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3772318.3790281 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Lim, K., Bodner, R., Ledley, K. T., Wang, S., Scheuer, L., & Torous, J. B. (2026) · Journal of Participatory Medicine · doi:10.2196/90255 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Numerous reviews highlight that such data can inform preventive, predictive, and more responsive care across the spectrum of mental illnesses [5,6].”
Self-citationConsiderations about the proliferation of large language model chatbots and youth mental health
Matthews, E., Cleary, F., & Firth, J. (2026) · Irish Journal of Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/ipm.2026.10195 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationWang, R., Sun, X., Sun, Y., & Wang, J. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1794568 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Broader synthesis work similarly suggests that the value of smartphone apps, generative AI systems, and other asynchronous tools depends heavily on implementation quality, integration with human support, and attention to equity and contextual fit (Torous et al., 2025).”
Dong, J., Ni, Q., Gong, X., Sui, W., Wang, L., Huang, Z. Z., Yi, J., Yan, R., Jiang, W., Zhou, H., et al. (2026) · Frontiers in Medicine · doi:10.3389/fmed.2026.1815659 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“It is evident that in the current era of rapidly evolving digital health technologies (45, 46), traditional or non-interactive preventive measures may not meet patients’ needs and expectations.”
Multidisciplinary research priorities for artificial intelligence in mental health: a call to action
Linardon, J., Firth, J., Carvalho, A. F., Bockting, C., Christensen, H. M., Dieckmann, L. H. J., Griffiths, S., Gupta, S., Hegerl, U., Li, K., et al. (2026) · The Lancet Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(26)00127-6 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“4 When a model is applied beyond these contexts, its performance often deteriorates, increasing the risk of bias and harm for under-represented populations.”
InfluentialSelf-citationMilton, A. C., Brown, E., Arnautovska, U., Vaughan, P., Gao, C. X., Chatterton, M. L., Stratton, E., Hancock, N., Chapman, J. J., Iyer, R., et al. (2026) · BJPsych Open · doi:10.1192/bjo.2026.12056 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationCheng, A. L., Gou, C. Y., Martin, A., Hartz, S. M., & Abraham, J. (2026) · JMIR mhealth and uhealth · doi:10.2196/87358 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
González-Robles, A., Romero-Ferreiro, V., Roca, P., Rodríguez‐Jiménez, T., & Díaz‐García, A. (2026) · General Hospital Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2026.03.008 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
What makes Internet‐based interventions work?
Andersson, G. (2025) · World Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/wps.21329 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The Evolution of Do-It-Yourself Brain Hacking: From Fringe to Frontier
Lakhan, S. E. (2025) · Cureus · doi:10.7759/cureus.85330 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“…has seen once-personal coping strategies, mood logs, exposure therapy, journaling, inform the development of PDTs, cognitive-behavioral therapy apps, biosensor-informed just-in-time adaptive interventions, and immunopsychiatry approaches that target systemic inflammation in mental illness [34,35].”
Torous, J. B., Ledley, K. T., Gorban, C., Strudwick, G., Schwarz, J., Choudhary, S., Emerson, M. R., Patriquin, M. A., Dempsey, A. G., Bantjes, J. R., et al. (2025) · doi:10.2196/preprints.84501 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationJeste, D. V., & Gyan, E. (2026) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.20260402 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
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Digital frontlines: leveraging AI to augment human expertise in crisis and combat situations
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“…that integrating smartphone applications, virtual reality, and generative artificial intelligence, though explicit to bipolar disorder, represents a digital pathway that digital psychiatry must keeping with, especially in terms of implementation, clinician-institution interaction, and equity[110].”
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“In terms of mental health promotion in general and digitalization of intervention delivery, there is a growing recognition that digital tools offer limited effectiveness without some degree of human support [33].”
Relational ontologies of AI and the technoethics of social isolation in psychosis
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“Individuals living with psychosis often experience digital marginalization, data privacy concerns, and algorithmic profiling that reinforces stigma [8,14].”
InfluentialAuyeung, L., Mak, W. W. S., & Tsang, E. Z. (2025) · Computers in Human Behavior Reports · doi:10.1016/j.chbr.2025.100880 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Linardon, J. (2025) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.70015 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationDesigning Resilient Educational Ecologies for Mental Health in Techno-Social Learning Environments
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Soubhagya, K. M., & Upendra, S. (2025) · Nursing and Health Sciences · doi:10.1111/nhs.70269 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Digital health tools (DHTs) such as electronic health records, internet-based technology, and mobile health (mHealth) applications are already ubiquitous in mental health practice (Torous et al. 2025).”
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Tse, S. S.-K. (2026) · World Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/wps.70008 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
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“Moreover, emotionally supportive and adaptive design can increase older adults’ openness to using digital mental health platforms and foster a sense of emotional stability [51].”
The necessity of digital measurement-based care for navigating complexity in youth mental health
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“The specific effects of platform design features (such as algorithmic feeds, read receipts, viral metrics, or digital memory functions) remain underexplored, even though these features may subtly reinforce compulsive behavior or emotional dysregulation [20-22].”
Suicide-Prevention Technology Toward Co-production with Caregivers
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“Hybrid human– digital programs in rural areas show similar promise for bridging access gaps (Goodman et al., 2025 ; Korczak et al., 2020; Torous et al., 2025 ).”
InfluentialTrends in pharmacotherapy and guideline comparisons in bipolar disorder: a narrative review
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Community Mental Health Services in Andean Peru: Mapping Supply and Demand
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Acute, Longer-Term, and Transdiagnostic Outcomes After Digital Interventions for Eating Disorders
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Self-citationRethinking the prediction and prevention of dropout in digital mental health
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Self-citation
- Authors
- Torous, J., Linardon, J., Goldberg, S. B., Sun, S., Bell, I., Nicholas, J., Hassan, L., Hua, Y., Milton, A., & Firth, J.
- Affiliations
- Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center (US)
- Deakin University (AU)
- University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
- Brown University (US)
- The University of Melbourne (AU)
- University of Manchester (GB)
- The University of Sydney (AU)
- Greater Manchester Mental Health NHS Foundation Trust (GB)
- ORCID
- Venue
- World Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2025-05-15
- Volume
- 24
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 156-174
- ISSN
- 1723-8617 (ISSN-L)
- 2051-5545
- PMC
- PMC12079407
- OpenAlex
- W4410407192
- Cited by
- 323
- References
- 256
- Citations by year
- 2026: 250 · 2025: 73
- FWCI
- 258.44
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- World Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion)
- Research Explorer (The University of Manchester) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (K23AT010879, K23AT011173, R24AT012845)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Digital Mental Health Interventions
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Mobile Health and mHealth Applications
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Telemedicine and Telehealth Implementation
- Keywords
- digital mental health, virtual reality therapy, generative AI, large language models, digital phenotyping, depression, anxiety, schizophrenia, eating disorders, substance use disorders, user engagement, digital navigators, just-in-time adaptive interventions, personalized interventions, implementation science, clinician engagement, service integration, digital health disparities, low- and middle-income countries, marginalized communities
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