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Working memory in children with reading disabilities
Abstract
This study investigated associations between working memory (measured by complex memory tasks) and both reading and mathematics abilities, as well as the possible mediating factors of fluid intelligence, verbal abilities, short-term memory (STM), and phonological awareness, in a sample of 46 6- to 11-year-olds with reading disabilities. As a whole, the sample was characterized by deficits in complex memory and visuospatial STM and by low IQ scores; language, phonological STM, and phonological awareness abilities fell in the low average range. Severity of reading difficulties within the sample was significantly associated with complex memory, language, and phonological awareness abilities, whereas poor mathematics abilities were linked with complex memory, phonological STM, and phonological awareness scores. These findings suggest that working memory skills indexed by complex memory tasks represent an important constraint on the acquisition of skill and knowledge in reading and mathematics. Possible mechanisms for the contribution of working memory to learning, and the implications for educational practice, are considered.
Overview
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
In 46 children aged 6–11 with reading disabilities, complex working memory and visuospatial short-term memory were markedly impaired, while phonological short-term memory, language, and phonological processing were low average. Complex memory was the strongest correlate of both reading and mathematics and independently predicted reading and, in some models, mathematics after IQ, language, and phonological measures were considered.
Key findings
- The sample had low reading and mathematics scores: WORD composite mean 76.46 (SD 8.44) and WOND composite mean 84.39 (SD 12.13). Complex memory (mean 77.72, SD 8.96) and visuospatial short-term memory (mean 75.13, SD 9.56) were especially low, whereas phonological short-term memory (mean 90.18, SD 11.08), language (mean 87.78, SD 10.69), verbal IQ (mean 83.39, SD 11.86), and performance IQ (mean 82.35, SD 13.84) were low average/low.
- Most children scored in the lowest band (<81) on complex memory (61%) and visuospatial short-term memory (70%).
- Complex memory correlated significantly with all other measures and was the strongest predictor of mean reading and mathematics scores. Reading correlated with complex memory (r = .557), language (r = .478), phonological processing (r = .442), verbal IQ (r = .350), and performance IQ (r = .330); mathematics correlated with complex memory (r = .591), phonological processing (r = .496), performance IQ (r = .427), language (r = .414), and phonological short-term memory (r = .338).
- In regression models, reading was independently predicted by language and complex memory (Model 1: R² = .443); when mathematics was added, mathematics and language predicted reading, but complex memory did not. For mathematics, no variable was independently significant in Model 1; complex memory was significant in Model 2 (R² = .482), phonological processing in Model 3 (R² = .465), and verbal IQ and complex memory in Model 4 (R² = .495).
Methods
- Participants were 46 children (13 girls, 33 boys) with a mean age of 9.00 years (range 6.06–11.00 years, SD = 12 months), attending state schools in Durham, North-East England. They were identified by schools as having special educational needs requiring additional support and scored below 86 on the Wechsler Objective Reading Dimension (WORD) composite; none had emotional or behavioral difficulties.
- Children were tested individually in six sessions of up to 30 minutes across six weeks. Measures included WMTB-C complex memory (backwards digit recall, counting recall, listening recall), visuospatial short-term memory (block recall, Visual Patterns Test), phonological short-term memory (digit recall, word list recall, word list matching), Phonological Assessment Battery (rhyme, spoonerism, alliteration), WOLD language, WISC-III UK verbal and performance IQ, WORD reading/spelling/comprehension, and WOND mathematical reasoning/numerical operations.
- Analyses used correlations and multiple regression models predicting composite reading and mathematics scores from cognitive measures.
Limitations
- The paper states that working memory assessment depended only on verbally based methods; at the time, robust nonverbal working memory measures for children were not available, so the degree of domain generality of the working memory deficits remains an open issue.
- The paper notes that phonological processing deficits were less marked than working memory deficits; it suggests this may reflect the age range (up to 11 years), possible reduced sensitivity of the measures, or prior UK phonological interventions.
- Evident from the text, not stated as a limitation: the sample is small (n = 46), selected for reading disabilities, and the design is correlational, so causal direction and generalization to other populations cannot be established.
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26 Own result · 21 Not checked yet · 16 Own interpretation · 2 No basis given · 1 Own method
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A key finding was that working memory skill independently predicted the children's attainments in reading and to a lesser extent in mathematics, and that the contribution of working memory was common to both ability domains (see also, Pickering & Gathercole, 2004).”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In Model 2, which incorporated phonological processing and complex memory span measures, the only significant independent predictor of mathematics scores was complex memory.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As a whole, the sample was characterized by deficits in complex memory and visuospatial short-term memory and by low IQ scores, whereas language, phonological short-term memory and phonological processing abilities fell in the low average range.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“Very low performance was found on both complex memory and visuospatial short-term memory measures.”
plainn = 46- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Also stated in: § Results · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Two measures were significant predictors of reading scores: language and complex memory.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Both verbal and performance IQ scores were at a low level across the group as a whole.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“As a group, the children had low IQ scores, but performed at even lower levels on measures of working memory (complex memory tasks) and of visuospatial short-term memory.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Also stated in: § Results · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“About half of the sample also obtained performance IQ scores below 86, although comparable low scores were less common in the remaining measures phonological short-term memory, phonological processing, language and verbal IQ.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A key finding was that working memory skill independently predicted the children's attainments in reading and to a lesser extent in mathematics, and that the contribution of working memory was common to both ability domains (see also, Pickering & Gathercole, 2004).”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Phonological short-term memory scores were significantly correlated only with complex memory and mathematics scores.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Working memory skills were significantly related to the severity of learning difficulties in both reading and mathematics in this sample of children with reading disabilities.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Reading ability was also significantly linked with the children's language and phonological processing abilities.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Performance IQ was highly correlated with all measures with the exception of phonological short-term memory.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Verbal IQ and complex memory were both significant predictors of mathematics ability in Model 4, which incorporated the complex memory and phonological short-term memory measures.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“None of the variables predicted significant independent proportions of variance in this analysis.”
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In the paper
“it is perhaps surprising these skills fell within the average range for the majority of children in the sample.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“This conclusion is reinforced by the present finding that phonological STM performance was not markedly impaired in this sample”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In conclusion, the severity of deficits in the areas of both reading and mathematics in a sample of children with reading disabilities was closely associated with working memory skill.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Attainments in mathematics were more generally related to individual differences common to measures of complex span, phonological processing, and phonological short-term memory, suggesting the contribution of phonological abilities to development of this skill domain.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Of the three measures, however, complex memory performance was the single strongest predictor of mathematics abilities.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“There is a substantial domain-general component to such working memory tasks (e.g., Bayliss, Jarrold, Gunn, & Baddeley, 2003; Kane, Hambrick, Tuholski, Wilhelm, Payne, & Engle, 2004; Swanson & Sachse-Lee, 2001) that has been interpreted as reflecting central executive function.”
What the sources say
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A key finding was that working memory skill independently predicted the children's attainments in reading and to a lesser extent in mathematics, and that the contribution of working memory was common to both ability domains (see also, Pickering & Gathercole, 2004).”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This asymmetry of association provides a strong basis for identifying working memory as a specific and significant contributor to reading disabilities.”
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These findings suggest that working memory skills indexed by complex memory represent an important constraint on the development of skill and knowledge in the key domains of reading and mathematics.”
hedgeddirectn = 46- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In typically developing samples of children, scores on complex memory tasks predict reading achievement independently of measures of phonological shortterm memory (e.g., Swanson, 2003; Swanson & Howell, 2001).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Swanson, 2003
- Not checked yetcites Swanson & Howell, 2001
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It therefore appears that the three phonological measures all shared a substantial amount of variance with mathematics scores but that of the three measures, the complex memory measure was the strongest single predictor.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The association between working memory and reading ability in this sample of children with learning disabilities was not mediated by fluid intelligence, verbal abilities, short-term memory or phonological processing skills.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Despite disparate processing demands, scores on the two tasks are highly correlated (e.g., Gathercole, Pickering, Ambridge, & Wearing, 2004) and are linked also with performance on memory updating tasks that are also believed to tap working memory (Jarvis & Gathercole, in press; Miyake, Friedman, Emerson, Witzki, Howerter, & Wager, 2000).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Gathercole, Pickering, Ambridge, & Wearing, 2004
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“An observational study of study of children aged 5 and 6 years who performed very poorly on measures of verbal working memory provides support for this view (Gathercole, Lamont, & Alloway, 2005).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Gathercole, Lamont, & Alloway, 2005
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The specificity of associations between working memory and scholastic attainment in this study is consistent with findings from other developmental samples.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“other recent evidence that deficits in phonological STM alone are not associated with substantial learning difficulties (Archibald & Gathercole, 2004; Gathercole, Tiffany, Briscoe, Thorn &”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Archibald & Gathercole, 2004
- Not checked yetcites Gathercole, Tiffany, Briscoe, Thorn &
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“differences in working memory ability in both children with reading comprehension problems and with learning difficulties remain after account has been taken of variation in verbal IQ (Cain et al., 2004; Siegel & Ryan, 1989)”
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Mathematical difficulties commonly accompany reading disabilities (Swanson & Saez, 2003), and are also characterized by deficits in working memory.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Swanson & Saez, 2003
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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In the paper
“these associations have been found to persist after differences in fluid intelligence have been statistically controlled in samples of children with learning difficulties and normal range intelligence (e.g., Swanson & Sachse-Lee, 2001).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Swanson & Sachse-Lee, 2001
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“asymmetry of association provides a strong basis for identifying working memory as a specific and significant contributor to reading disabilities.”
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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In the paper
“The independence of the working memory association with severity of learning difficulties from phonological processing skills is also consistent with other findings from studies of children with learning difficulties (e.g., Swanson & Beebe-Frankenberger, 2004).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Swanson & Beebe-Frankenberger, 2004 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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In the paper
“suggesting that variation in working memory scores is not mediated simply by the contribution of phonological STM to performance on complex memory tasks”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Baddeley & Logie, 1999
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Selecting children purely on the basis of their reading disabilities without restricting the range of intelligence scores leads to a much stronger test of whether links between complex memory scores and learning achievements reflect differences in fluid intelligence rather than a specific working memory construct.”
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“indicating that working memory performance is not simply a proxy for verbal ability.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, working memory deficits appeared to have been associated with more pervasive learning disabilities that extended beyond reading alone.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Failures in these kinds of activities occurred frequently in both literacy and numeracy classes.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Gathercole, Lamont, & Alloway, 2005
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“It is also well established that children with reading disabilities show significant and marked decrements on working memory tasks relative to typically developing individuals (Siegel & Ryan, 1989; Swanson, 1994, 1999; Swanson, Ashbaker, & Lee, 1996).”
What the sources say
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“On this basis, we have suggested that children with low working memory skills will have difficulties in meeting the routine working memory demands of many structured learning activities that are common in the classroom.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- It may state two separate claims as one. 17
- Probably not a substantial claim. 8
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although visuospatial short-term memory scores were very low within this sample, they correlated significantly only with complex memory, phonological processing, and performance IQ scores, and not with either reading or mathematics scores.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Complex memory performance was significantly associated with all other measures, and was the strongest predictor of mean reading and mathematics scores of the measures included in the study.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These data establish that the majority of children scored in the lowest band on the complex memory and visuospatial short-term memory measures (61% and 70%, respectively), with very small proportions performing in the 85+ range that can be classified as average (9% and 4%, respectively).”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“whereas language, phonological short-term memory and phonological processing abilities fell in the low average range.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“Phonological short-term memory scores, on the other hand, fell within the low average range.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“Language ability also fell in the low average range, both for the oral expression and language comprehension subtests.”
plainn = 46- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In Model 3, which included the phonological processing and phonological short-term memory measures, phonological processing was a significant predictor, and phonological short-term memory was marginally nonsignificant ( p =.052).”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Phonological processing scores were strongly associated with complex memory scores, and also with both IQ measures and both reading and mathematics scores.”
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The independent predictors of reading ability in this analysis were mathematics and language scores, but not complex memory scores.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Language scores and verbal IQ were highly associated with one another, and both were significantly correlated with reading and mathematics scores.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“And despite close links between measures of fluid intelligence and working memory in adult samples (Conway et al., 2003; Engle et al., 1999), fluid intelligence shared no independent associations with either reading or mathematics in the present study.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the phonological awareness skills of the reading disabled children participating in the present study were relatively low, the deficits were neither as extreme nor as marked as the working memory deficits.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In terms of the influential working memory model of Baddeley and Hitch (1974), developed subsequently by Baddeley (1986, 2000), these components correspond to two slave systems: the phonological loop retains material in a phonological code that is highly susceptible to time-based decay, and the visuospatial sketchpad has limited capacities to represent information in terms of its visual and spati”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Baddeley and Hitch (1974) source
- Not checked yetcites Baddeley (1986, 2000)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Thus complex memory span such as listening and counting span appear to tap both the central executive and the phonological loop (Lobley, Gathercole, & Baddeley, in press), whereas analogous visuospatial complex memory tasks (Jarvis & Gathercole, 2003; Shah & Miyake, 1996) may draw upon the resources of the central executive and the visuospatial sketchpad.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Lobley, Gathercole, & Baddeley, in press
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Findings from experimental, developmental, and neuropsychological studies indicate that short-term memory is fractionated into at least two domain-specific components that are specialized for the retention of phonological and visuospatial material (see Gathercole, 1999, and Vallar & Papagno, 2002, for reviews).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Gathercole, 1999 source
- Not checked yetcites Vallar & Papagno, 2002
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In addition, low working memory scores have been found to be strongly and specifically associated both with poor computational skills (Wilson & Swanson, 2001) and difficulties in solving mathematical problems expressed in everyday language (Swanson & Sachse-Lee, 2001).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Wilson & Swanson, 2001 source
- Not checked yetcites Swanson & Sachse-Lee, 2001
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Particularly high rates of failure were found in following complex instructions (which the child often forgot), performing tasks that imposed significant storage and processing loads, and in tasks with a complex hierarchical structure (in which the child often lost their place, and eventually abandoned prior to completion).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Gathercole, Lamont, & Alloway, 2005
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suggest that effective management of working memory loads in structured learning activities may ameliorate the problems of learning that are associated with impairments of working memory.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We propose that this association arizes because working memory acts as a bottleneck for learning in classroom activities”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“A related view that we favor is that impairments of working memory result in pervasive learning difficulties because this system acts as a bottleneck for learning in many of the individual learning episodes required to increment the acquisition of knowledge (Gathercole, 2004).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Gathercole, 2004
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Mathematical difficulties commonly accompany reading disabilities (Swanson & Saez, 2003), and are also characterized by deficits in working memory.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Swanson & Saez, 2003
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“The children were working in the lowest ability groups in both literacy and mathematics within their classrooms, and were observed to make frequent errors in activities that placed heavy demands on working memory.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Gathercole, Lamont, & Alloway, 2005
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“it is likely that these children will have received specific interventions targeting phonological skills that may have remediated any deficits in this area.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“In a recent study of working memory in children with learning disabilities (Pickering & Gathercole, 2004), we found that children classified by their schools as having problems in both reading and mathematics had depressed performance on complex memory tasks, but that individuals with difficulties restricted to reading did not.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Pickering & Gathercole, 2004
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This finding may reflect the age range of the group, which included children as old as 11 years; in most typically developing children of this age, phonological processing skills are complete by this point so the measures may lack some sensitivity.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This will lead to frequent task failures, which represent missed opportunities to learn and so to achieve normal incremental progress in complex skill domains.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It predicts that promoting teacher awareness of working memory loads in classroom activities and effective management of these loads for children with impairments of working memory should boost their learning.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Complex memory tasks tap working memory.
“As the present research is not concerned specifically with distinctions between models, the theoretically neutral terms phonological and visuospatial short-term memory will be used to refer to storage-only assessments of the respective informational domains, and complex memory tasks will be interpreted as tapping working memory.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The degree to which working memory deficits specifically constrain learning progress within children with recognized learning disabilities is less well understood.
“Although close links between memory function and individual variation in a range of aspects of learning and academic achievement in unselected samples of children are well established, the degree to which working memory deficits specifically constrain learning progress within children with recognized learning disabilities is less well understood.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“children suffering from developmental disorders or learning disabilities often display specific EF deficits, suggesting these deficits are risk factors for poor academic performance and development (e.g., Barkley, 1997; Gathercole et al., 2006; Schuchardt et al., 2008”
From Executive control training from middle childhood to adolescence (2014) · cites this paper as Gathercole et al., 2006
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- ConsistentF(5, 40) = 6.375reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(5,40)=6.375, p < .001”
- ConsistentF(6, 39) = 6.481reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(6,39)=6.481, p < .001”
- ConsistentF(5, 40) = 6.965reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(5,40)=6.965, p < .001”
- ConsistentF(6, 39) = 6.824reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(6,39)=6.824, p < .001”
- ConsistentF(5, 40) = 7.499reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(5,40)=7.499, p < .001”
- ConsistentF(5, 40) = 7.829reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(5,40)=7.829, p < .001”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“| Performance IQ | -0.020 | 0.131 | -0.022 | -0.882 |”
Reported -0.882 · recomputed -0.152672
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Results
“with very small proportions performing in the 85+ range that can be classified as average (9% and 4%, respectively).”
§ Author Note
“| 81-85 | 0.78 | 0.35 | 0.87 | 0.33 | 0.46 | 0.57 | 0.65 |”
Citations
Cites
Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 · Cited by 15,798
Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. (1974) · Psychology of Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(08)60452-1 · Cited by 9,860
The episodic buffer: a new component of working memory?
Baddeley, A. (2000) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/s1364-6613(00)01538-2 · Cited by 7,359 · cited 1×
“In the inXuential working memory model of Baddeley and Hitch (1974), developed subsequently by Baddeley (1986, 2000), these components correspond to diVerent slave systems.”
The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity
Cowan, N. (2001) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x01003922 · Cited by 6,779 · cited 1×
“Other theorists have proposed that working memory consists of activated long-term memory representations and that STM is the subset of working memory that falls within the focus of attention (Cowan, 2001; Engle, Kane, & Tuholski, 1999).”
Individual differences in working memory and reading
Daneman, M., & Carpenter, P. A. (1980) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(80)90312-6 · Cited by 6,336 · cited 2×
“An example of a complex memory task is listening span, where participants are asked to make a meaning-based judgment about each of a series of spoken sentences and then to remember the last word of each sentence in sequence (e.g., Daneman & Carpenter, 1980).”
A capacity theory of comprehension: individual differences in working memory
Just, M. A., & Carpenter, P. A. (1992) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.99.1.122 · Cited by 4,153 · cited 1×
“Another inXuential conceptualization of working memory is of a limited resource that can be Xexibly allocated to support either processing or storage (e.g., Daneman & Carpenter, 1980; Just & Carpenter, 1992).”
The nature of phonological processing and its causal role in the acquisition of reading skills
Wagner, R. K., & Torgesen, J. K. (1987) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.101.2.192 · Cited by 3,303 · cited 1×
“…with both reading ability (e.g., Bradley & Bryant, 1985; Brady & Shankweiler, 1991; Catts, Gillispie, Leonard, Kail, & Miller, 2002; Stanovich & Siegel, 1994; Wagner & Torgesen, 1987; Wolf & Bowers, 1999) and mathematical skills (e.g., Geary, Hoard, & Hamson, 1999; Rourke & Conway, 1997).”
Working memory, short-term memory, and general fluid intelligence: A latent-variable approach.
Engle, R. W., Tuholski, S. W., Laughlin, J. E., & Conway, A. R. A. (1999) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.128.3.309 · Cited by 3,078
Models of Working Memory: Mechanisms of Active Maintenance and Executive Control
Miyake, A., & Shah, P. (1999) · Cited by 2,404
Exploring the Central Executive
Baddeley, A. (1996) · The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A · doi:10.1080/713755608 · Cited by 2,390 · cited 1×
“…Hitch (1974) model includes the central executive, responsible for a range of functions such as retrieval of information from long-term memory, regulation of information within working memory, attentional control of both encoding and retrieval strategies, and task shifting (Baddeley, 1986, 1996).”
Research works printed but not linked: 3
- Lobley, 2005, Is there a role for the phonological loop in verbal complex span?, Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58A, 1
- Vallar, G., & Papagno, C. (2002). Neuropsychological impairments of verbal short-term memory. In A. D. Baddeley, M. D. Kopelman, & B. A. Wilson (Eds.), Handbook of memory disorders (2nd ed., pp. 249–270). New York: John Wiley.
- Wagner, R. K., & Muse. A. (in press). Working memory deficits in developmental dyslexia. In T. P. Alloway & S. E. Gathercole (Eds.), Working memory in neurodevelopmental conditions. Hove, UK: Psychology Press.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Bull, R., Espy, K. A., & Wiebe, S. A. (2008) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/87565640801982312 · Cited by 1,544
“Therefore, these tasks are included in the correlational analyses only with an indication of the number of children who completed the task.”
Phonological skills and their role in learning to read: A meta-analytic review.
Melby‐Lervåg, M., Lyster, S. H., & Hulme, C. (2012) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0026744 · Cited by 1,504
Investigating the predictive roles of working memory and IQ in academic attainment
Alloway, T. P., & Alloway, R. G. (2009) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2009.11.003 · Cited by 1,489
“Working memory capacity also has a significant impact on learning in various developmental disorders such as reading disabilities (Gathercole, Alloway, Willis, & Adams, 2006), language impairments (Alloway & Archibald, 2008), and motor difficulties (Alloway, 2007b).”
Self-citationAdaptive training leads to sustained enhancement of poor working memory in children
Holmes, J., Gathercole, S. E., & Dunning, D. L. (2009) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00848.x · Cited by 961
Self-citationPonitz, C. C., McClelland, M. M., Matthews, J. S., & Morrison, F. J. (2009) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0015365 · Cited by 934
Metadata
- Authors
- Gathercole, S. E., Alloway, T. P., Willis, C., & Adams, A.-M.
- Affiliations
- Durham University (GB)
- Liverpool John Moores University (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Gathercole, Susan Elizabeth
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Child Psychology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2006-03
- Volume
- 93
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 265-281
- ISSN
- 0022-0965 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2133978923
- Semantic Scholar
- 4967bfaabe86456c103c4e6416d600fccbf3012d
- Cited by
- 795
- References
- 66
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 26 · 2023: 28 · 2022: 40 · 2021: 35 · 2020: 37 · 2019: 47 · 2018: 43 · 2017: 41 · 2016: 52 · 2015: 59 · 2014: 60 · 2013: 53 · 2012: 54
- FWCI
- 30.35
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Child Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Stirling Online Research Repository (University of Stirling) (submittedVersion, public-domain)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Reading and Literacy Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Keywords
- working memory, reading disorders, dyslexia, short-term memory, phonological awareness, phonological working memory, fluid intelligence, verbal ability, mathematical ability, reading skills, children, low IQ, visuospatial memory, language skills
- MeSH terms
- Aptitude, Awareness, Child, Discrimination Learning, Dyslexia, Educational Status, Female, Humans, Intelligence, Language Development Disorders, Male, Mathematics, Memory, Short-Term, Neuropsychological Tests, Pattern Recognition, Visual, Phonetics, Problem Solving, Reading, Mental Recall, Statistics as Topic, Verbal Learning, Comprehension
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-06, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-06 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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