The complexities of complex span: Explaining individual differences in working memory in children and adults.
Open accessAbstract
Two studies are presented that investigated the constraints underlying working memory performance in children and adults. In each case, independent measures of processing efficiency and storage capacity are assessed to determine their relative importance in predicting performance on complex span tasks,which measure working memory capacity. Results show that complex span performance was independently constrained by individual differences in domain-general processing efficiency and domain-specific storage capacity. Residual variance, which may reflect the ability to coordinate storage and processing, also predicted academic achievement. These results challenge the view that complex span taps a limited-capacity resource pool shared between processing and storage operations. Rather, they are consistent with a multiple-component model in which separate resource pools support the processing and storage functions of working memory.
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There is a substantial domain-general component to working memory tasks.
“There is a substantial domain-general component to such working memory tasks (e.g., Bayliss, Jarrold, Gunn, & Baddeley, 2003; Kane, Hambrick, Tuholski, Wilhelm, Payne, & Engle, 2004; Swanson & Sachse-Lee, 2001) that has been interpreted as reflecting central executive function.”
From Working memory in children with reading disabilities (2006) · cites this paper as Bayliss, Jarrold, Gunn, & Baddeley, 2003
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Temporal clustering and sequencing in short-term memory and episodic memory.
Farrell, S. (2012) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/a0027371 · Cited by 240 · see citing works
Imbo, I., & Vandierendonck, A. (2007) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2006.09.001 · Cited by 244 · see citing works
The relationship between working memory, IQ, and mathematical skills in children
Alloway, T., & Passolunghi, M. (2011) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2010.09.013 · Cited by 231 · see citing works
Do Mental Processes Share a Domain-General Resource?
Vergauwe, E., Barrouillet, P., & Camos, V. (2010) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797610361340 · Cited by 221 · see citing works
“Bayliss et al. (2003) observed that verbal recall performance was worse when combined with verbal processing than when combined with visuospatial processing, whereas visuospatial recall performance was not affected by the nature of information concurrently processed.”
BackgroundMethodSwanson, L., & Kim, K. (2006) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2006.07.001 · Cited by 218 · see citing works
Working memory and fluid intelligence in young children
Engel de Abreu, P. M. J., Conway, A. R. A., & Gathercole, S. E. (2010) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2010.07.003 · Cited by 212 · see citing works
“…Matrices tests is one of the most commonly adopted means of testing Gf in both adults (Carpenter, et al., 1990; Conway, et al., 2002; Engle, 2010) and in children (Bayliss, et al., 2003; Swanson, 2008), and loads highly on a general factor in psychometric studies of intelligence (Carroll, 1993).”
BackgroundExploring the Relationship Between Modified Output and Working Memory Capacity
Mackey, A., Adams, R. J., Stafford, C. A., & Winke, P. M. (2010) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9922.2010.00565.x · Cited by 214 · see citing works
Working memory span development: A time-based resource-sharing model account.
Barrouillet, P., Gavens, N., Vergauwe, E., Gaillard, V., & Camos, V. (2009) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0014615 · Cited by 212 · see citing works
Attentional and executive function behaviours in children with poor working memory
Gathercole, S. E., Alloway, T. P., Kirkwood, H., Elliott, J. G., Holmes, J., & Hilton, K. A. (2008) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2007.10.003 · Cited by 215 · see citing works
“with the allocation of limited-capacity attentional resources to support the processing element of complex span tasks (Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006; Bayliss, Jarrold, Gunn, and Baddeley, 2003; Kane, Hambrick, Tuholski, Wilhelm, Payne, & Engle, 2004).”
MethodWorking Memory in Children With Developmental Disorders
Alloway, T. P., Rajendran, G., & Archibald, L. M. D. (2009) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/0022219409335214 · Cited by 203 · see citing works
Mapping the Developmental Constraints on Working Memory Span Performance.
Bayliss, D. M., Jarrold, C., Baddeley, A., Riby, D. M., & Leigh, E. (2005) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.41.4.579 · Cited by 196 · see citing works
Self-citationComputerized working memory training: Can it lead to gains in cognitive skills in students?
Alloway, T. P., Bibile, V., & Lau, G. (2013) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2012.10.023 · Cited by 193 · see citing works
Scharinger, C., Soutschek, A., Schubert, T., & Gerjets, P. H. (2017) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2017.00006 · Cited by 194 · see citing works
“…(Dspan) by means of typical WM load-related measures of the Electroencephalogram (EEG) like the parietal alpha and beta frequency band power, the frontal theta frequency band power, and the P300 amplitude, to examine whether these tasks would show commonalities or differences in WM processing-load.”
BackgroundMethodIndividual Differences in Working Memory Capacity and Reasoning Ability
Oberauer, K., Süß, H., Wilhelm, O., & Sander, N. (2008) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195168648.003.0003 · Cited by 191 · see citing works
Domain-general mechanisms of complex working memory span
Chein, J. M., Moore, A., & Conway, A. R. A. (2010) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.07.067 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
“A few behavioral studies have manipulated and crossed both the storage and processing domains of WM span tasks (Bayliss et al., 2003; Shah and Miyake, 1996).”
Goff, D. A., Pratt, C., & Ong, B. (2005) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/s11145-004-7109-0 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
Complex span tasks, simple span tasks, and cognitive abilities: A reanalysis of key studies
Colom, R., Rebollo, I., Abad, F. J., & Shih, P. C. (2006) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03193395 · Cited by 181 · see citing works
“…to note that the SLHFA is much more appropriate than nonhierarchical factor analyses, such as those computed by Engle, Tuholski, et al. (1999) and Bayliss et al. (2003), because the factors obtained after a nonhierarchical factor analysis confound the shared Table 1 Correlation Matrix Showing…”
MethodKane, M. J., Poole, B. J., Tuholski, S. W., & Engle, R. W. (2006) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.32.4.749 · Cited by 180 · see citing works
“…& Hutton, 2000), mental resources or activation (Cantor & Engle, 1993; Just & Carpenter, 1992; Shah & Miyake, 1996), processing efficiency or speed (Bayliss et al., 2003; Case, Kurland, & Goldberg, 1982; Fry & Hale, 1996), mnemonic strategies (McNamara & Scott, 2001), inhibitory control of memory…”
BackgroundInfluentialEvaluating the validity of the Automated Working Memory Assessment
Alloway, T. P., Gathercole, S. E., Kirkwood, H., & Elliott, J. (2008) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410802243828 · Cited by 242 · see citing works
“This model has been supported by evidence from studies of children (eg, Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006 ; Alloway, Gathercole, Willis, & Adams, 2004 ; Bayliss, Jarrold, Gunn, & Baddeley, 2003 ), adult participants (Kane, et al, 2004 ), neuropsychological patients, and neuroimaging (Jonides, Lacey, & Nee, 2005 ).”
A working memory test battery for MATLAB
Lewandowsky, S., Oberauer, K., Yang, L.-X., & Ecker, U. K. H. (2010) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/brm.42.2.571 · Cited by 179 · see citing works
Andersson, U. (2008) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1348/000709907x209854 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
Avoiding Interference: Adult Attachment and Emotional Processing Biases
Edelstein, R. S., & Gillath, O. (2008) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167207310024 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
“Deficits in WM may reflect not only attentional difficulties but also limitations in storage capacity or retrieval efficiency (e.g., Bayliss, Jerrold, Gunn, & Baddeley, 2003 ).”
BackgroundWorking Memory and Reading Difficulties: What We Know and What We Don’t Know About the Relationship
Savage, R. S., Lavers, N., & Pillay, V. (2006) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-006-9024-1 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
“To this end, it should be noted however that Bayliss et al. (2003) report very”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialWorking memory abilities and children's performance in laboratory analogues of classroom activities
Gathercole, S. E., Durling, E., Evans, M. K., Jeffcock, S., & Stone, S. (2007) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1407 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
“…of the memory items in addition to their storage appears to depend both on the phonological loop and the central executive, a limited capacity attentional component that contributes to processing (Alloway et al., 2006; Bayliss et al., 2003; Kane, Hambrick, Tuholski, Wilhelm, Payne, & Engle, 2004).”
The Importance of Handwriting Speed in Adult Writing
Peverly, S. T. (2006) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1207/s15326942dn2901_10 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Chu, M., Meyer, A. S., Foulkes, L., & Kita, S. (2013) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/a0033861 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
Working memory and autism: A review of literature
Kercood, S., Grskovic, J. A., Banda, D. R., & Begeske, J. (2014) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2014.06.011 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
The impact of storage on processing: How is information maintained in working memory?
Vergauwe, E., Camos, V., & Barrouillet, P. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0035779 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
Children's working-memory processes: A response-timing analysis.
Cowan, N., Towse, J. N., Hamilton, Z., Saults, J. S., Elliott, E. M., Lacey, J. F., Moreno, M. V., & Hitch, G. J. (2003) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.132.1.113 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Gathercole, S. E. (2012) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198568971.013.0046 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Archibald, L. M. D., & Gathercole, S. E. (2006) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2006.11.004 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
The role of covert retrieval in working memory span tasks: Evidence from delayed recall tests
McCabe, D. P. (2007) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2007.04.004 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
“, a memory load, disrupts the effectiveness of encoding of to-be-remembered items (Bayliss et al., 2003;McCabe Robertson, & Smith, 2005).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe structure of working memory in young children and its relation to intelligence
Gray, S., Green, S., Alt, M., Hogan, T., Kuo, T., Brinkley, S., & Cowan, N. (2017) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2016.06.004 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
What predicts skill in lecture note taking?
Peverly, S. T., Ramaswamy, V., Brown, C., Sumowski, J. F., Alidoost, M., & Garner, J. (2007) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.99.1.167 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Alloway, T. P. (2010) · Journal of Intellectual Disability Research · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2788.2010.01281.x · Cited by 136 · see citing works
Listening comprehension in preschoolers: The role of memory
Florit, E., Roch, M., Altoè, G., & Levorato, M. C. (2009) · British Journal of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1348/026151008x397189 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
Backwards digit recall: A measure of short-term memory or working memory?
Clair‐Thompson, H. S. (2009) · The European Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/09541440902771299 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
“First, reversing a digit sequence could genuinely be a routine task, meaning that performance is only determined by storage capacity and not processing efficiency (see also Bayliss, Jarrold, Gunn, & Baddeley, 2003 ).”
Engel de Abreu, P. M. J., Gathercole, S. E., & Martin, R. (2011) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2011.06.002 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
Verbal and Visuospatial Working Memory as Predictors of Children's Reading Ability
Pham, A. V., & Hasson, R. (2014) · Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology · doi:10.1093/arclin/acu024 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
“Additionally, it has been shown that differences in task structure or the nature of the stimuli used can dramatically influence the predictive power of a WM measure, independently of task modality (Bayliss et al., 2003).”
BackgroundExecutive and phonological processes in second-language acquisition.
de Abreu, P. E., & Gathercole, S. E. (2012) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0028390 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Visuospatial Immediate Memory in Specific Language Impairment
Archibald, L. M. D., & Gathercole, S. E. (2006) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2006/022 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
On the nature of forgetting and the processing–storage relationship in reading span performance
Saito, S., & Miyake, A. (2004) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2003.12.003 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Rhodes, S. M., Park, J., Seth, S., & Coghill, D. R. (2012) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02436.x · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Working memory, learning, and academic achievement.
Swanson, H. L., & Alloway, T. P. (2012) · APA educational psychology handbook, Vol 1: Theories, constructs, and critical issues. · doi:10.1037/13273-012 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Working Memory in Children With Reading Disabilities and/or Mathematical Disabilities
Weerdt, F. D., Desoete, A., & Roeyers, H. (2012) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/0022219412455238 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
“Forward recall tasks have a minimal processing load, whereas this load is much higher in backward spans (Baddeley, 1996) and maximized in dual tasks (Bayliss et al., 2003).”
BackgroundWorking memory across the lifespan: A cross-sectional approach
Alloway, T. P., & Alloway, R. G. (2013) · Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/20445911.2012.748027 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Working Memory and the Hippocampus
Baddeley, A., Jarrold, C., & Vargha‐Khadem, F. (2011) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_00066 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
“We compared Jonʼs performance to a baseline group taken from the initial Bayliss et al. (2003) study.”
BackgroundResultSelf-citationWorking memory and intelligence in children: What develops?
Swanson, H. L. (2008) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.100.3.581 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Attachment and emotional memory: investigating the source and extent of avoidant memory impairments.
Edelstein, R. S. (2006) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/1528-3542.6.2.340 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
“Yet, others have found that WM capacity is also limited by factors that are not necessarily attentional, including storage capacity, processing efficiency, or the ability to coordinate processing and storage requirements (e.g., Bayliss, Jerrold, Gunn, & Baddeley, 2003 ).”
BackgroundJohnson, W., Logie, R. H., & Brockmole, J. R. (2010) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2010.06.005 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Behavioral and Neural Signatures of Working Memory in Childhood
Rosenberg, M. D., Martinez, S. A., Rapuano, K. M., Conley, M. I., Cohen, A. O., Cornejo, M. D., Hagler, D. J., Meredith, W. J., Anderson, K. M., Wager, T. D., et al. (2020) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.2841-19.2020 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Working memory and educational achievement in children with intellectual disabilities
Henry, L. A., & Winfield, J. (2010) · Journal of Intellectual Disability Research · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2788.2010.01264.x · Cited by 102 · see citing works
“…memory measures are important predictors of educational achievement in TD children (Alloway, Gathercole, Adams, Willis, Eaglen & Lamont, 2005; Bayliss, Jarrold, Gunn & Baddeley, 2003; Bayliss et al, 2005; Berg, 2008; Bull & Scerif, 2001; Bull, Espy & Wiebe, 2008; Gathercole & Pickering,…”
Nevo, E., & Breznitz, Z. (2010) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2010.09.010 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
“Some studies found that the two subsidiary systems of the central executive were significantly related to reading abilities (e.g., Bayliss et al., 2003; Bishop, 2003; Meyler & Breznitz, 1998; Plaza & Cohen, 2003; Shatil & Share, 2003).”
BackgroundOberauer, K. (2009) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/mc.37.3.346 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
“Feature overwriting as a mechanism of interference can also explain why interference is reduced when items and distractors come from different broad categories, such as numbers versus words (Conlin et al., 2005; Li, 1999) or verbal versus spatial material ( Bayliss, Jarrold, Gunn, & Baddeley, 2003; Maehara & Saito, 20…”
BackgroundINHIBITION CONTROL AND WORKING MEMORY CAPACITY IN CHILDREN WITH SLI
Marton, K., KELMENSON, L., & PINKHASOVA, M. (2007) · PSYCHOLOGIA · doi:10.2117/psysoc.2007.110 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Low working memory capacity impedes both efficiency and learning of number transcoding in children
Camos, V. (2007) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2007.06.006 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
“The capacity of the storage per se could also be greater in these children (Bayliss et al., 2003, 2005).”
BackgroundInfluentialEvidence for different components in children's visuospatial working memory
Mammarella, I. C., Pazzaglia, F., & Cornoldi, C. (2007) · British Journal of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1348/026151007x236061 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Working memory capacity and resistance to interference
Oberauer, K., Lange, E. B., & Engle, R. W. (2004) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2004.03.003 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
“Preliminary evidence for this contention has been obtained by Bayliss, Jarrold, Gunn, and Baddeley (2003) and by Oberauer et al. (2003).”
ResultUncovering the Mechanisms Responsible for Why Language Learning May Promote Healthy Cognitive Aging
Antoniou, M., & Wright, S. M. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02217 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
“…thus greater variability in executive functions, as measured by behavioral tasks, are more likely to be observed in older adulthood (when cognitive functions decline; Bialystok et al., 2008) or in childhood (when the foundations of cognitive processing are being established; Bayliss et al., 2003).”
BackgroundChildren with low working memory and children with ADHD: same or different?
Holmes, J., Hilton, K. A., Place, M., Alloway, T. P., Elliott, J. G., & Gathercole, S. E. (2014) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00976 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
“The general pattern of findings is consistent with a common impairment in both groups in the domain-general executive control aspect of WM (Bayliss et al., 2003; Kane et al., 2004; Alloway et al., 2006), but not in verbal STM.”
ResultTam, H., Jarrold, C., Baddeley, A., & Sabatos‐DeVito, M. (2010) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2010.05.006 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Self-citationCoughlin, C. A., Lyons, K. E., & Ghetti, S. (2014) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2014.02.001 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Genetics of verbal working memory processes: a twin study of middle-aged men.
Kremen, W., Jacobsen, K. C., Xian, H., Eisen, S., Eaves, L., Tsuang, M., & Lyons, M. (2007) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/0894-4105.21.5.569 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
“This reaction time measure provides some index of processing speed, a factor that may be associated with reading span performance (Bayliss et al., 2003).”
BackgroundWorking memory and general intelligence: The role of short-term storage
Colom, R., Flores-Mendoza, C. E., Quiroga, M. Á., & Privado, J. (2005) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.03.020 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
The real relationship between short-term memory and working memory
Colom, R., Shih, P. C., Flores-Mendoza, C. E., & Quiroga, M. Á. (2006) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658210600680020 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
“Colom et al.’s (in press) re-analyses of the datasets of Engle et al. (1999), Miyake et al. (2001), Conway et al. (2002), Bayliss et al. (2003), and Kane et al. (2004) failed to find empirical evidence supporting the view that WM measures should be distinguished from STM measures.”
BackgroundHow common are WM deficits in children with difficulties in reading and mathematics?
Gathercole, S. E., CALM Team, Woolgar, F., Kievit, R., Astle, D. E., Manly, T., & Holmes, J. (2016) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2016.07.013 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Working memory development: A 50-year assessment of research and underlying theories
Cowan, N. (2022) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2022.105075 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
The relationship between short‐term memory and working memory: Complex span made simple?
Bayliss, D. M., Jarrold, C., Baddeley, A., & Riby, D. M. (2004) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658210344000332 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Self-citationLau‐Zhu, A., Holmes, E. A., Butterfield, S., & Holmes, J. (2017) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3339 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
“According to Baddeley’s model, the processing demands of these tasks share variance and are therefore controlled by a domain-general component (Bayliss et al., 2003).”
Method
- Authors
- Bayliss, D. M., Jarrold, C., Gunn, D. M., & Baddeley, A. D.
- Affiliations
- University of Bristol (GB)
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
- Published
- 2003
- Volume
- 132
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 71-92
- ISSN
- 0096-3445 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2222
- OpenAlex
- W1985525819
- Cited by
- 427
- References
- 79
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 24 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 17 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 20 · 2016: 24 · 2015: 24 · 2014: 20 · 2013: 18 · 2012: 29
- FWCI
- 26.20
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Psychology General (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UWA Profiles and Research Repository (UWA) (submittedVersion)
- Durham Research Online (Durham University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Explore Bristol Research (submittedVersion)
- Bristol Research (University of Bristol) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Cognitive and developmental aspects of mathematical skills
- Keywords
- working memory, complex span, individual differences, processing efficiency, storage capacity, domain-general processing, academic performance, children, adults, resource allocation
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Age Factors, Child, Educational Status, Humans, Memory, Reaction Time, Space Perception, Speech Perception, Visual Perception
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