The DOI matches its Crossref record; 70 of the 70 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 31 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Working memory in children with reading disabilities
Abstract
This study investigated associations between working memory (measured by complex memory tasks) and both reading and mathematics abilities, as well as the possible mediating factors of fluid intelligence, verbal abilities, short-term memory (STM), and phonological awareness, in a sample of 46 6- to 11-year-olds with reading disabilities. As a whole, the sample was characterized by deficits in complex memory and visuospatial STM and by low IQ scores; language, phonological STM, and phonological awareness abilities fell in the low average range. Severity of reading difficulties within the sample was significantly associated with complex memory, language, and phonological awareness abilities, whereas poor mathematics abilities were linked with complex memory, phonological STM, and phonological awareness scores. These findings suggest that working memory skills indexed by complex memory tasks represent an important constraint on the acquisition of skill and knowledge in reading and mathematics. Possible mechanisms for the contribution of working memory to learning, and the implications for educational practice, are considered.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
In 46 children aged 6–11 with reading disabilities, complex working memory and visuospatial short-term memory were markedly impaired, while phonological short-term memory, language, and phonological processing were low average. Complex memory was the strongest correlate of both reading and mathematics and independently predicted reading and, in some models, mathematics after IQ, language, and phonological measures were considered.
Key findings
- The sample had low reading and mathematics scores: WORD composite mean 76.46 (SD 8.44) and WOND composite mean 84.39 (SD 12.13). Complex memory (mean 77.72, SD 8.96) and visuospatial short-term memory (mean 75.13, SD 9.56) were especially low, whereas phonological short-term memory (mean 90.18, SD 11.08), language (mean 87.78, SD 10.69), verbal IQ (mean 83.39, SD 11.86), and performance IQ (mean 82.35, SD 13.84) were low average/low.
- Most children scored in the lowest band (<81) on complex memory (61%) and visuospatial short-term memory (70%).
- Complex memory correlated significantly with all other measures and was the strongest predictor of mean reading and mathematics scores. Reading correlated with complex memory (r = .557), language (r = .478), phonological processing (r = .442), verbal IQ (r = .350), and performance IQ (r = .330); mathematics correlated with complex memory (r = .591), phonological processing (r = .496), performance IQ (r = .427), language (r = .414), and phonological short-term memory (r = .338).
- In regression models, reading was independently predicted by language and complex memory (Model 1: R² = .443); when mathematics was added, mathematics and language predicted reading, but complex memory did not. For mathematics, no variable was independently significant in Model 1; complex memory was significant in Model 2 (R² = .482), phonological processing in Model 3 (R² = .465), and verbal IQ and complex memory in Model 4 (R² = .495).
Methods
- Participants were 46 children (13 girls, 33 boys) with a mean age of 9.00 years (range 6.06–11.00 years, SD = 12 months), attending state schools in Durham, North-East England. They were identified by schools as having special educational needs requiring additional support and scored below 86 on the Wechsler Objective Reading Dimension (WORD) composite; none had emotional or behavioral difficulties.
- Children were tested individually in six sessions of up to 30 minutes across six weeks. Measures included WMTB-C complex memory (backwards digit recall, counting recall, listening recall), visuospatial short-term memory (block recall, Visual Patterns Test), phonological short-term memory (digit recall, word list recall, word list matching), Phonological Assessment Battery (rhyme, spoonerism, alliteration), WOLD language, WISC-III UK verbal and performance IQ, WORD reading/spelling/comprehension, and WOND mathematical reasoning/numerical operations.
- Analyses used correlations and multiple regression models predicting composite reading and mathematics scores from cognitive measures.
Limitations
- The paper states that working memory assessment depended only on verbally based methods; at the time, robust nonverbal working memory measures for children were not available, so the degree of domain generality of the working memory deficits remains an open issue.
- The paper notes that phonological processing deficits were less marked than working memory deficits; it suggests this may reflect the age range (up to 11 years), possible reduced sensitivity of the measures, or prior UK phonological interventions.
- Evident from the text, not stated as a limitation: the sample is small (n = 46), selected for reading disabilities, and the design is correlational, so causal direction and generalization to other populations cannot be established.
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26 Own result · 21 Not checked yet · 16 Own interpretation · 2 No basis given · 1 Own method
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A key finding was that working memory skill independently predicted the children's attainments in reading and to a lesser extent in mathematics, and that the contribution of working memory was common to both ability domains (see also, Pickering & Gathercole, 2004).”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In Model 2, which incorporated phonological processing and complex memory span measures, the only significant independent predictor of mathematics scores was complex memory.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As a whole, the sample was characterized by deficits in complex memory and visuospatial short-term memory and by low IQ scores, whereas language, phonological short-term memory and phonological processing abilities fell in the low average range.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“Very low performance was found on both complex memory and visuospatial short-term memory measures.”
plainn = 46- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Two measures were significant predictors of reading scores: language and complex memory.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Both verbal and performance IQ scores were at a low level across the group as a whole.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“As a group, the children had low IQ scores, but performed at even lower levels on measures of working memory (complex memory tasks) and of visuospatial short-term memory.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“About half of the sample also obtained performance IQ scores below 86, although comparable low scores were less common in the remaining measures phonological short-term memory, phonological processing, language and verbal IQ.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A key finding was that working memory skill independently predicted the children's attainments in reading and to a lesser extent in mathematics, and that the contribution of working memory was common to both ability domains (see also, Pickering & Gathercole, 2004).”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Phonological short-term memory scores were significantly correlated only with complex memory and mathematics scores.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Working memory skills were significantly related to the severity of learning difficulties in both reading and mathematics in this sample of children with reading disabilities.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Reading ability was also significantly linked with the children's language and phonological processing abilities.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 17
- Probably not a substantial claim. 8
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although visuospatial short-term memory scores were very low within this sample, they correlated significantly only with complex memory, phonological processing, and performance IQ scores, and not with either reading or mathematics scores.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Complex memory performance was significantly associated with all other measures, and was the strongest predictor of mean reading and mathematics scores of the measures included in the study.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These data establish that the majority of children scored in the lowest band on the complex memory and visuospatial short-term memory measures (61% and 70%, respectively), with very small proportions performing in the 85+ range that can be classified as average (9% and 4%, respectively).”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“whereas language, phonological short-term memory and phonological processing abilities fell in the low average range.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“Phonological short-term memory scores, on the other hand, fell within the low average range.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“Language ability also fell in the low average range, both for the oral expression and language comprehension subtests.”
plainn = 46- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In Model 3, which included the phonological processing and phonological short-term memory measures, phonological processing was a significant predictor, and phonological short-term memory was marginally nonsignificant ( p =.052).”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Phonological processing scores were strongly associated with complex memory scores, and also with both IQ measures and both reading and mathematics scores.”
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The independent predictors of reading ability in this analysis were mathematics and language scores, but not complex memory scores.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Language scores and verbal IQ were highly associated with one another, and both were significantly correlated with reading and mathematics scores.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“And despite close links between measures of fluid intelligence and working memory in adult samples (Conway et al., 2003; Engle et al., 1999), fluid intelligence shared no independent associations with either reading or mathematics in the present study.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the phonological awareness skills of the reading disabled children participating in the present study were relatively low, the deficits were neither as extreme nor as marked as the working memory deficits.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In terms of the influential working memory model of Baddeley and Hitch (1974), developed subsequently by Baddeley (1986, 2000), these components correspond to two slave systems: the phonological loop retains material in a phonological code that is highly susceptible to time-based decay, and the visuospatial sketchpad has limited capacities to represent information in terms of its visual and spati”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Baddeley and Hitch (1974) source
- Not checked yetcites Baddeley (1986, 2000)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Thus complex memory span such as listening and counting span appear to tap both the central executive and the phonological loop (Lobley, Gathercole, & Baddeley, in press), whereas analogous visuospatial complex memory tasks (Jarvis & Gathercole, 2003; Shah & Miyake, 1996) may draw upon the resources of the central executive and the visuospatial sketchpad.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Lobley, Gathercole, & Baddeley, in press
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Findings from experimental, developmental, and neuropsychological studies indicate that short-term memory is fractionated into at least two domain-specific components that are specialized for the retention of phonological and visuospatial material (see Gathercole, 1999, and Vallar & Papagno, 2002, for reviews).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Gathercole, 1999 source
- Not checked yetcites Vallar & Papagno, 2002
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In addition, low working memory scores have been found to be strongly and specifically associated both with poor computational skills (Wilson & Swanson, 2001) and difficulties in solving mathematical problems expressed in everyday language (Swanson & Sachse-Lee, 2001).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Wilson & Swanson, 2001 source
- Not checked yetcites Swanson & Sachse-Lee, 2001
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Particularly high rates of failure were found in following complex instructions (which the child often forgot), performing tasks that imposed significant storage and processing loads, and in tasks with a complex hierarchical structure (in which the child often lost their place, and eventually abandoned prior to completion).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Gathercole, Lamont, & Alloway, 2005
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suggest that effective management of working memory loads in structured learning activities may ameliorate the problems of learning that are associated with impairments of working memory.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We propose that this association arizes because working memory acts as a bottleneck for learning in classroom activities”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“A related view that we favor is that impairments of working memory result in pervasive learning difficulties because this system acts as a bottleneck for learning in many of the individual learning episodes required to increment the acquisition of knowledge (Gathercole, 2004).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Gathercole, 2004
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Mathematical difficulties commonly accompany reading disabilities (Swanson & Saez, 2003), and are also characterized by deficits in working memory.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Swanson & Saez, 2003
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“The children were working in the lowest ability groups in both literacy and mathematics within their classrooms, and were observed to make frequent errors in activities that placed heavy demands on working memory.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Gathercole, Lamont, & Alloway, 2005
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“it is likely that these children will have received specific interventions targeting phonological skills that may have remediated any deficits in this area.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“In a recent study of working memory in children with learning disabilities (Pickering & Gathercole, 2004), we found that children classified by their schools as having problems in both reading and mathematics had depressed performance on complex memory tasks, but that individuals with difficulties restricted to reading did not.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Pickering & Gathercole, 2004
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This finding may reflect the age range of the group, which included children as old as 11 years; in most typically developing children of this age, phonological processing skills are complete by this point so the measures may lack some sensitivity.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This will lead to frequent task failures, which represent missed opportunities to learn and so to achieve normal incremental progress in complex skill domains.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It predicts that promoting teacher awareness of working memory loads in classroom activities and effective management of these loads for children with impairments of working memory should boost their learning.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Complex memory tasks tap working memory.
“As the present research is not concerned specifically with distinctions between models, the theoretically neutral terms phonological and visuospatial short-term memory will be used to refer to storage-only assessments of the respective informational domains, and complex memory tasks will be interpreted as tapping working memory.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The degree to which working memory deficits specifically constrain learning progress within children with recognized learning disabilities is less well understood.
“Although close links between memory function and individual variation in a range of aspects of learning and academic achievement in unselected samples of children are well established, the degree to which working memory deficits specifically constrain learning progress within children with recognized learning disabilities is less well understood.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“children suffering from developmental disorders or learning disabilities often display specific EF deficits, suggesting these deficits are risk factors for poor academic performance and development (e.g., Barkley, 1997; Gathercole et al., 2006; Schuchardt et al., 2008”
From Executive control training from middle childhood to adolescence (2014) · cites this paper as Gathercole et al., 2006
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- ConsistentF(5, 40) = 6.375reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(5,40)=6.375, p < .001”
- ConsistentF(6, 39) = 6.481reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(6,39)=6.481, p < .001”
- ConsistentF(5, 40) = 6.965reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(5,40)=6.965, p < .001”
- ConsistentF(6, 39) = 6.824reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(6,39)=6.824, p < .001”
- ConsistentF(5, 40) = 7.499reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(5,40)=7.499, p < .001”
- ConsistentF(5, 40) = 7.829reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(5,40)=7.829, p < .001”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“| Performance IQ | -0.020 | 0.131 | -0.022 | -0.882 |”
Reported -0.882 · recomputed -0.152672
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Results
“with very small proportions performing in the 85+ range that can be classified as average (9% and 4%, respectively).”
§ Author Note
“| 81-85 | 0.78 | 0.35 | 0.87 | 0.33 | 0.46 | 0.57 | 0.65 |”
Citations
Cites
Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 · Cited by 15,798
Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. (1974) · Psychology of Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(08)60452-1 · Cited by 9,860
The episodic buffer: a new component of working memory?
Baddeley, A. (2000) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/s1364-6613(00)01538-2 · Cited by 7,359 · cited 1×
“In the inXuential working memory model of Baddeley and Hitch (1974), developed subsequently by Baddeley (1986, 2000), these components correspond to diVerent slave systems.”
The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity
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“Other theorists have proposed that working memory consists of activated long-term memory representations and that STM is the subset of working memory that falls within the focus of attention (Cowan, 2001; Engle, Kane, & Tuholski, 1999).”
Individual differences in working memory and reading
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A capacity theory of comprehension: individual differences in working memory
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The nature of phonological processing and its causal role in the acquisition of reading skills
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Working memory, short-term memory, and general fluid intelligence: A latent-variable approach.
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“Therefore, these tasks are included in the correlational analyses only with an indication of the number of children who completed the task.”
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“Working memory capacity also has a significant impact on learning in various developmental disorders such as reading disabilities (Gathercole, Alloway, Willis, & Adams, 2006), language impairments (Alloway & Archibald, 2008), and motor difficulties (Alloway, 2007b).”
Self-citationAdaptive training leads to sustained enhancement of poor working memory in children
Holmes, J., Gathercole, S. E., & Dunning, D. L. (2009) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00848.x · Cited by 961
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Nonword repetition and word learning: The nature of the relationship
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Math Anxiety, Working Memory, and Math Achievement in Early Elementary School
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“For the present purposes, values below 1 SD from the mean (standard scores < 86) are viewed as indicative of mild deficit, with lower scores representing greater degrees of severity (see Gathercole, Alloway, et al., 2006; Gathercole, Lamont, et al., 2006).”
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Short‐term and working memory in specific language impairment
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Executive control training from middle childhood to adolescence
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“…years, a number of studies have addressed the key question of whether the unity/diversity framework appropriately describes the structure of EFs in children and adolescents (e.g., Lehto et al., 2003; Gathercole et al., 2004; Huizinga et al., 2006; Wiebe et al., 2008, 2011; Rose et al., 2011).”
BackgroundWorking Memory, but Not IQ, Predicts Subsequent Learning in Children with Learning Difficulties
Alloway, T. P. (2009) · European Journal of Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1027/1015-5759.25.2.92 · Cited by 293
“Composite standard scores for verbal IQ and performance IQ are reported.”
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Resting-State Functional Connectivity Indexes Reading Competence in Children and Adults
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“Additionally, other phenotypic variables, such as phonological awareness and working memory (Gathercole et al., 2006), have been associated with reading competence as well.”
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The influence of working memory on reading growth in subgroups of children with reading disabilities
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“Thus, there is evidence that WM impairments may play a critical role in mediating some of the academic problems in children with RD (e.g., de Jong, 1998; Gathercole et al., 2006; Swanson & Berninger, 1995; Willcutt, Pennington, Olson, Chhabildas, & Hulslander, 2005).”
BackgroundA Meta-Analysis of Working Memory Deficits in Children With Learning Difficulties
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Widening participation and lifelong learning
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“…working memory skills may be a critical determinant of the extent and severity of learning diYculties in children of low general abilities (e.g., Gathercole et al., 2006), the present study investigated whether there would be diVerential links between verbal and visuospatial memory impairments…”
BackgroundSelf-citationEffects of Dual-Language Immersion Programs on Student Achievement
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Attentional and executive function behaviours in children with poor working memory
Gathercole, S. E., Alloway, T. P., Kirkwood, H., Elliott, J. G., Holmes, J., & Hilton, K. A. (2008) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2007.10.003 · Cited by 243
“Although there is no discrete point at which typical and atypical performance can be unequivocally distinguished, for the present purposes scores at or more than 1 SD below the population mean (below 86) are taken as indicative of a deficit (Gathercole et al., 2006”
BackgroundSelf-citationIdentifying and Teaching Children and Young People with Dyslexia and Literacy Difficulties
Rose, J. (2009) · Cited by 211
Working Memory in Children With Developmental Disorders
Alloway, T. P., Rajendran, G., & Archibald, L. M. D. (2009) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/0022219409335214 · Cited by 203
Self-citationPreterm infant hippocampal volumes correlate with later working memory deficits
Beauchamp, M. H., Thompson, D. K., Howard, K., Doyle, L. W., Egan, G. F., Inder, T. E., & Anderson, P. J. (2008) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awn227 · Cited by 207
“…of functions, such as language development (Rudner and Ronnberg, 2007), literacy, writing skills and mathematical abilities (Gersten et al., 2005; Gathercole et al., 2006; Lundberg and Sterner, 2006; Andersson, 2007), as well as executive functions, such as planning and organization (Pennington…”
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“As with other atypical populations, such as children with poor reading comprehension (Swanson & Berninger, 1995) and children with persistent learning difficulties (Gathercole et al., 2006), it may be that the learning difficulties of children with DCD are associated with working memory impairments.”
BackgroundSelf-citationAcademic Outcomes 2 Years After Working Memory Training for Children With Low Working Memory
Roberts, G., Quach, J., Spencer‐Smith, M. M., Anderson, P. J., Gathercole, S. E., Gold, L. H., Sia, K.-L., Mensah, F. K., Rickards, F., Ainley, J., et al. (2016) · Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine · doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2015.4568 · Cited by 210
Self-citationComputerized working memory training: Can it lead to gains in cognitive skills in students?
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Adaptive working-memory training benefits reading, but not mathematics in middle childhood
Karbach, J., Strobach, T., & Schubert, T. (2015) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2014.899336 · Cited by 183
“Moreover, the extent of WM deficits was directly associated with the extent of deficits in reading and math in children with reading disabilities (Gathercole et al., 2006).”
BackgroundPassolunghi, M. C., Mammarella, I. C., & Altoè, G. (2008) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/87565640801982320 · Cited by 179
Evaluating the validity of the Automated Working Memory Assessment
Alloway, T. P., Gathercole, S. E., Kirkwood, H., & Elliott, J. (2008) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410802243828 · Cited by 242
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Music Training for the Development of Reading Skills
Tierney, A. T., & Kraus, N. (2013) · Progress in brain research · doi:10.1016/b978-0-444-63327-9.00008-4 · Cited by 199
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“(b) Working memory: The ability to hold and manipulate information in the short-term is important for many aspects of everyday life as well as educational performance; and furthermore, working memory problems (particularly the accurate processing and retrieval of auditory/verbal sequential information), are commonly a…”
BackgroundExecutive Functioning and Speech-Language Skills Following Long-Term Use of Cochlear Implants
Kronenberger, W. G., Colson, B. G., Henning, S. C., & Pisoni, D. B. (2014) · The Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education · doi:10.1093/deafed/enu011 · Cited by 169
Working Memory and Reading Difficulties: What We Know and What We Don’t Know About the Relationship
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“Results from Gathercole et al. (1997) and Gathercole, Service, Hitch, Adams, & Martin (1999) showed that both the NWR and the NWM tasks both correlated with vocabulary ability.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialWorking memory abilities and children's performance in laboratory analogues of classroom activities
Gathercole, S. E., Durling, E., Evans, M. K., Jeffcock, S., & Stone, S. (2007) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1407 · Cited by 166
“The child must also be able to keep track of his or her place in the task, an ability that also appears to be compromised in individuals with low working memory (Gathercole et al., 2006).”
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“For example, some studies explored WM functioning in children (ie, Jeffries & Everatt, 2004 ) and some in adults (ie, Smith-Spark & Fisk, 2007 ); other studies included children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) ( Kibby et al, 2004 ), whereas others considered only children with attention/behavioral…”
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Self-citationAre Working Memory Measures Free of Socioeconomic Influence?
de Abreu, P. E., Santos, F. H., & Gathercole, S. E. (2008) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2008/07-0210 · Cited by 149
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“In fact, there is documented evidence for the association between working memory deficits and learning difficulties in the areas of reading and math (e.g., Bull & Scerif, 2001; Gathercole, Alloway, Willis, & Adams, 2006; Gersten, Jordan, & Flojo, 2005; Swanson & Beebe-Frankenberger, 2004).”
BackgroundAcute Exercise Improves Prefrontal Cortex but not Hippocampal Function in Healthy Adults
Basso, J. C., Shang, A., Elman, M., Karmouta, R., & SUZUKI, W. A. (2015) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s135561771500106x · Cited by 169
Cognitive correlates of vocabulary growth in English language learners
Farnia, F., & Geva, E. (2011) · Applied Psycholinguistics · doi:10.1017/s0142716411000038 · Cited by 138
“Gathercole et al. (2006) reported that reading (dis)ability was associated with language and PA skills of school age children and not with phonological short-term memory performance.”
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Self-citationV. NIH TOOLBOX COGNITION BATTERY (CB): MEASURING WORKING MEMORY
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Playing Music for a Smarter Ear: Cognitive, Perceptual and Neurobiological Evidence
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“In light of connections between child reading impairment, the inability of the auditory system to encode a target signal of interest in the presence of noise (Sperling, Lu, Manis, & Seidenberg, 2005, 2006), impaired auditory cognitive skills (Gathercole et al., 2006; Gathercole & Baddeley, 1990; Siegel, 1994), and def…”
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“001), a test that combines auditory working memory with knowledge of grammar—an additional substrate skill that contributes to literacy development and is often deficient in children with dyslexia and/or language impairment [36].”
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Assistive listening devices drive neuroplasticity in children with dyslexia
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“, 2005; de Jong & Olson, 2004); other indications are that this is not the case (Dufva et al., 2001; Gathercole et al., 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationMathematical competencies in children with different types of learning difficulties.
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Verbal and Visuospatial Working Memory as Predictors of Children's Reading Ability
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Executive and phonological processes in second-language acquisition.
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Self-citationRapid Serial Naming Is a Unique Predictor of Spelling in Children
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The contribution of working memory to children's mathematical word problem solving
Andersson, U. (2006) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1317 · Cited by 134
Working Memory, Strategy Knowledge, and Strategy Instruction in Children With Reading Disabilities
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Working memory, learning, and academic achievement.
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“The strong relations between STM/WM and the development of S/L skills has been demonstrated in numerous studies with normal-hearing children (Gathercole et al. 2006; Alloway et al. 2009).”
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“Therefore, management of working memory loads in structured learning activities in the classroom, at home, or during therapy may help these children to cope with their problems in a more profound manner (Gathercole et al., 2006).”
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“Only one study was found that assessed how well academic achievement predicted later memory.”
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Impact of bilirubin-induced neurologic dysfunction on neurodevelopmental outcomes
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Nevo, E., & Breznitz, Z. (2010) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2010.09.010 · Cited by 101
“However, complex memory measures would contribute to the prediction of all reading abilities because previous data indicated a link between complex memory and reading abilities (e.g., Gathercole et al., 2006; Swanson, 2003).”
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Functional anatomy of listening and reading comprehension during development
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“Working memory is a component skill of executive functioning that moderates language development (Alloway and Gathercole, 2006; Gathercole et al., 2006).”
BackgroundTraining working memory: Limits of transfer
Sprenger, A. M., Atkins, S. M., Bolger, D. J., Harbison, J. I., Novick, J. M., Chrabaszcz, J. S., Weems, S. A., Smith, V., Bobb, S., Bunting, M. F., et al. (2013) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2013.07.013 · Cited by 96
Does learning to read shape verbal working memory?
Demoulin, C., & Kolinsky, R. (2015) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-015-0956-7 · Cited by 109
Working Memory: The What, the Why, and the How
Alloway, T., & Copello, E. (2013) · The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist · doi:10.1017/edp.2013.13 · Cited by 77
“…example, working memory skills predict a child’s performance in language and math, even after a child’s IQ scores have been statistically accounted (Gathercole, Alloway, Willis & Adams, 2006; Nation, Adams, Bowyer-Crane, & Snowling, 1999; Stothard & Hulme, 1992; for a review see Swanson & Saez,…”
BackgroundSelf-citationMichel, E., Röthlisberger, M., Neuenschwander, R., & Roebers, C. M. (2011) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2010.525501 · Cited by 97
“Specifically, executive control processes that also involve short-term memory contribute significantly to the prediction of reading and writing ( Alloway et al, 2006 ), and arithmetic ( Bull & Scerif, 2001 ; Geary & Hoard, 2001 ; Lee, Swee-Fong, Ee-Lynn, & Zee-Ying, 2004 ).”
BackgroundWass, M., Ibertsson, T., Lyxell, B., Sahlén, B., Hällgren, M., Larsby, B., & Mäki-Torkko, E. (2008) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.2008.00680.x · Cited by 97
“The phonological storage may be necessary in the process of encoding phonological information in long-term memory in order to acquire distinct phonological representations (Gathercole et al., 2005).”
BackgroundApplying cognitive training to target executive functions during early development
Wass, S. V. (2014) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2014.882888 · Cited by 101
Mobile Learning for Special Preschool Education
Drigas, A. S., & Kokkalia, G. (2016) · International Journal of Interactive Mobile Technologies (iJIM) · doi:10.3991/ijim.v10i1.5288 · Cited by 93
“Technology enables the teacher to plan learning activities for children with short attention spans, allowing them to be actively involved in learning, and in turn even increase the child’s motivation and confidence [39].”
Backgroundde Abreu, P. E., Abreu, N., Nikaedo, C. C., Puglisi, M. L., Neto, C. J. T. D. A., Miranda, M. ́. C., Befi‐Lopes, D. M., Bueno, O. F. A., & Martin, R. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00550 · Cited by 110
“ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE published: 10 June 2014 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00550 Executive functioning and reading achievement in school: a study of Brazilian children assessed by their teachers as “poor readers””
BackgroundInfluentialThe developmental relationship between specific cognitive domains and grey matter in the cerebellum
Moore, D. M., D’Mello, A. M., McGrath, L. M., & Stoodley, C. J. (2016) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2016.12.001 · Cited by 90
The relationship between study skills and academic performance of university students
Hassanbeigi, A., Askari, J., Nakhjavani, M., Shirkhoda, S., Barzegar, K., Mozayyan, M. R., & Fallahzadeh, H. (2011) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.10.276 · Cited by 111
Game elements improve performance in a working memory training task
Ninaus, M., Pereira, G., Stefitz, R., Prada, R., Paiva, A., Neuper, C., & Wood, G. (2015) · International Journal of Serious Games · doi:10.17083/ijsg.v2i1.60 · Cited by 86
“Thus working memory is also a strong predictor for reading and mathematical skills [15].”
BackgroundReading as Statistical Learning
Arciuli, J. (2018) · Language Speech and Hearing Services in Schools · doi:10.1044/2018_lshss-stlt1-17-0135 · Cited by 86
Kiili, K., Moeller, K., & Ninaus, M. (2018) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2018.01.012 · Cited by 119
Metadata
- Authors
- Gathercole, S. E., Alloway, T. P., Willis, C., & Adams, A.-M.
- Affiliations
- Durham University (GB)
- Liverpool John Moores University (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Gathercole, Susan Elizabeth
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Child Psychology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2006-03
- Volume
- 93
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 265-281
- ISSN
- 0022-0965 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2133978923
- Semantic Scholar
- 4967bfaabe86456c103c4e6416d600fccbf3012d
- Cited by
- 795
- References
- 66
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 26 · 2023: 28 · 2022: 40 · 2021: 35 · 2020: 37 · 2019: 47 · 2018: 43 · 2017: 41 · 2016: 52 · 2015: 59 · 2014: 60 · 2013: 53 · 2012: 54
- FWCI
- 30.35
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Child Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Stirling Online Research Repository (University of Stirling) (submittedVersion, public-domain)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Reading and Literacy Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Keywords
- working memory, reading disorders, dyslexia, short-term memory, phonological awareness, phonological working memory, fluid intelligence, verbal ability, mathematical ability, reading skills, children, low IQ, visuospatial memory, language skills
- MeSH terms
- Aptitude, Awareness, Child, Discrimination Learning, Dyslexia, Educational Status, Female, Humans, Intelligence, Language Development Disorders, Male, Mathematics, Memory, Short-Term, Neuropsychological Tests, Pattern Recognition, Visual, Phonetics, Problem Solving, Reading, Mental Recall, Statistics as Topic, Verbal Learning, Comprehension
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