The DOI matches its Crossref record; 70 of the 70 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 31 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Working memory in children with reading disabilities
Abstract
This study investigated associations between working memory (measured by complex memory tasks) and both reading and mathematics abilities, as well as the possible mediating factors of fluid intelligence, verbal abilities, short-term memory (STM), and phonological awareness, in a sample of 46 6- to 11-year-olds with reading disabilities. As a whole, the sample was characterized by deficits in complex memory and visuospatial STM and by low IQ scores; language, phonological STM, and phonological awareness abilities fell in the low average range. Severity of reading difficulties within the sample was significantly associated with complex memory, language, and phonological awareness abilities, whereas poor mathematics abilities were linked with complex memory, phonological STM, and phonological awareness scores. These findings suggest that working memory skills indexed by complex memory tasks represent an important constraint on the acquisition of skill and knowledge in reading and mathematics. Possible mechanisms for the contribution of working memory to learning, and the implications for educational practice, are considered.
Overview
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
In 46 children aged 6–11 with reading disabilities, complex working memory and visuospatial short-term memory were markedly impaired, while phonological short-term memory, language, and phonological processing were low average. Complex memory was the strongest correlate of both reading and mathematics and independently predicted reading and, in some models, mathematics after IQ, language, and phonological measures were considered.
Key findings
- The sample had low reading and mathematics scores: WORD composite mean 76.46 (SD 8.44) and WOND composite mean 84.39 (SD 12.13). Complex memory (mean 77.72, SD 8.96) and visuospatial short-term memory (mean 75.13, SD 9.56) were especially low, whereas phonological short-term memory (mean 90.18, SD 11.08), language (mean 87.78, SD 10.69), verbal IQ (mean 83.39, SD 11.86), and performance IQ (mean 82.35, SD 13.84) were low average/low.
- Most children scored in the lowest band (<81) on complex memory (61%) and visuospatial short-term memory (70%).
- Complex memory correlated significantly with all other measures and was the strongest predictor of mean reading and mathematics scores. Reading correlated with complex memory (r = .557), language (r = .478), phonological processing (r = .442), verbal IQ (r = .350), and performance IQ (r = .330); mathematics correlated with complex memory (r = .591), phonological processing (r = .496), performance IQ (r = .427), language (r = .414), and phonological short-term memory (r = .338).
- In regression models, reading was independently predicted by language and complex memory (Model 1: R² = .443); when mathematics was added, mathematics and language predicted reading, but complex memory did not. For mathematics, no variable was independently significant in Model 1; complex memory was significant in Model 2 (R² = .482), phonological processing in Model 3 (R² = .465), and verbal IQ and complex memory in Model 4 (R² = .495).
Methods
- Participants were 46 children (13 girls, 33 boys) with a mean age of 9.00 years (range 6.06–11.00 years, SD = 12 months), attending state schools in Durham, North-East England. They were identified by schools as having special educational needs requiring additional support and scored below 86 on the Wechsler Objective Reading Dimension (WORD) composite; none had emotional or behavioral difficulties.
- Children were tested individually in six sessions of up to 30 minutes across six weeks. Measures included WMTB-C complex memory (backwards digit recall, counting recall, listening recall), visuospatial short-term memory (block recall, Visual Patterns Test), phonological short-term memory (digit recall, word list recall, word list matching), Phonological Assessment Battery (rhyme, spoonerism, alliteration), WOLD language, WISC-III UK verbal and performance IQ, WORD reading/spelling/comprehension, and WOND mathematical reasoning/numerical operations.
- Analyses used correlations and multiple regression models predicting composite reading and mathematics scores from cognitive measures.
Limitations
- The paper states that working memory assessment depended only on verbally based methods; at the time, robust nonverbal working memory measures for children were not available, so the degree of domain generality of the working memory deficits remains an open issue.
- The paper notes that phonological processing deficits were less marked than working memory deficits; it suggests this may reflect the age range (up to 11 years), possible reduced sensitivity of the measures, or prior UK phonological interventions.
- Evident from the text, not stated as a limitation: the sample is small (n = 46), selected for reading disabilities, and the design is correlational, so causal direction and generalization to other populations cannot be established.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A key finding was that working memory skill independently predicted the children's attainments in reading and to a lesser extent in mathematics, and that the contribution of working memory was common to both ability domains (see also, Pickering & Gathercole, 2004).”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In Model 2, which incorporated phonological processing and complex memory span measures, the only significant independent predictor of mathematics scores was complex memory.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As a whole, the sample was characterized by deficits in complex memory and visuospatial short-term memory and by low IQ scores, whereas language, phonological short-term memory and phonological processing abilities fell in the low average range.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“Very low performance was found on both complex memory and visuospatial short-term memory measures.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § Results · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Two measures were significant predictors of reading scores: language and complex memory.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Both verbal and performance IQ scores were at a low level across the group as a whole.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“As a group, the children had low IQ scores, but performed at even lower levels on measures of working memory (complex memory tasks) and of visuospatial short-term memory.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § Results · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“About half of the sample also obtained performance IQ scores below 86, although comparable low scores were less common in the remaining measures phonological short-term memory, phonological processing, language and verbal IQ.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A key finding was that working memory skill independently predicted the children's attainments in reading and to a lesser extent in mathematics, and that the contribution of working memory was common to both ability domains (see also, Pickering & Gathercole, 2004).”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Phonological short-term memory scores were significantly correlated only with complex memory and mathematics scores.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Working memory skills were significantly related to the severity of learning difficulties in both reading and mathematics in this sample of children with reading disabilities.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Reading ability was also significantly linked with the children's language and phonological processing abilities.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
- It may state two separate claims as one. 17
- Probably not a substantial claim. 8
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although visuospatial short-term memory scores were very low within this sample, they correlated significantly only with complex memory, phonological processing, and performance IQ scores, and not with either reading or mathematics scores.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Complex memory performance was significantly associated with all other measures, and was the strongest predictor of mean reading and mathematics scores of the measures included in the study.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These data establish that the majority of children scored in the lowest band on the complex memory and visuospatial short-term memory measures (61% and 70%, respectively), with very small proportions performing in the 85+ range that can be classified as average (9% and 4%, respectively).”
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“whereas language, phonological short-term memory and phonological processing abilities fell in the low average range.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“Phonological short-term memory scores, on the other hand, fell within the low average range.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“Language ability also fell in the low average range, both for the oral expression and language comprehension subtests.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 46Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In Model 3, which included the phonological processing and phonological short-term memory measures, phonological processing was a significant predictor, and phonological short-term memory was marginally nonsignificant ( p =.052).”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Phonological processing scores were strongly associated with complex memory scores, and also with both IQ measures and both reading and mathematics scores.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The independent predictors of reading ability in this analysis were mathematics and language scores, but not complex memory scores.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Language scores and verbal IQ were highly associated with one another, and both were significantly correlated with reading and mathematics scores.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“And despite close links between measures of fluid intelligence and working memory in adult samples (Conway et al., 2003; Engle et al., 1999), fluid intelligence shared no independent associations with either reading or mathematics in the present study.”
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the phonological awareness skills of the reading disabled children participating in the present study were relatively low, the deficits were neither as extreme nor as marked as the working memory deficits.”
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In terms of the influential working memory model of Baddeley and Hitch (1974), developed subsequently by Baddeley (1986, 2000), these components correspond to two slave systems: the phonological loop retains material in a phonological code that is highly susceptible to time-based decay, and the visuospatial sketchpad has limited capacities to represent information in terms of its visual and spati”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Baddeley and Hitch (1974) source
- Not checked yetcites Baddeley (1986, 2000)
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Thus complex memory span such as listening and counting span appear to tap both the central executive and the phonological loop (Lobley, Gathercole, & Baddeley, in press), whereas analogous visuospatial complex memory tasks (Jarvis & Gathercole, 2003; Shah & Miyake, 1996) may draw upon the resources of the central executive and the visuospatial sketchpad.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Lobley, Gathercole, & Baddeley, in press
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Findings from experimental, developmental, and neuropsychological studies indicate that short-term memory is fractionated into at least two domain-specific components that are specialized for the retention of phonological and visuospatial material (see Gathercole, 1999, and Vallar & Papagno, 2002, for reviews).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Gathercole, 1999 source
- Not checked yetcites Vallar & Papagno, 2002
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In addition, low working memory scores have been found to be strongly and specifically associated both with poor computational skills (Wilson & Swanson, 2001) and difficulties in solving mathematical problems expressed in everyday language (Swanson & Sachse-Lee, 2001).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Wilson & Swanson, 2001 source
- Not checked yetcites Swanson & Sachse-Lee, 2001
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Particularly high rates of failure were found in following complex instructions (which the child often forgot), performing tasks that imposed significant storage and processing loads, and in tasks with a complex hierarchical structure (in which the child often lost their place, and eventually abandoned prior to completion).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Gathercole, Lamont, & Alloway, 2005
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suggest that effective management of working memory loads in structured learning activities may ameliorate the problems of learning that are associated with impairments of working memory.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We propose that this association arizes because working memory acts as a bottleneck for learning in classroom activities”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“A related view that we favor is that impairments of working memory result in pervasive learning difficulties because this system acts as a bottleneck for learning in many of the individual learning episodes required to increment the acquisition of knowledge (Gathercole, 2004).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Gathercole, 2004
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Mathematical difficulties commonly accompany reading disabilities (Swanson & Saez, 2003), and are also characterized by deficits in working memory.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Swanson & Saez, 2003
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“The children were working in the lowest ability groups in both literacy and mathematics within their classrooms, and were observed to make frequent errors in activities that placed heavy demands on working memory.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Gathercole, Lamont, & Alloway, 2005
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“it is likely that these children will have received specific interventions targeting phonological skills that may have remediated any deficits in this area.”
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“In a recent study of working memory in children with learning disabilities (Pickering & Gathercole, 2004), we found that children classified by their schools as having problems in both reading and mathematics had depressed performance on complex memory tasks, but that individuals with difficulties restricted to reading did not.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Pickering & Gathercole, 2004
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This finding may reflect the age range of the group, which included children as old as 11 years; in most typically developing children of this age, phonological processing skills are complete by this point so the measures may lack some sensitivity.”
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This will lead to frequent task failures, which represent missed opportunities to learn and so to achieve normal incremental progress in complex skill domains.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It predicts that promoting teacher awareness of working memory loads in classroom activities and effective management of these loads for children with impairments of working memory should boost their learning.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Complex memory tasks tap working memory.
“As the present research is not concerned specifically with distinctions between models, the theoretically neutral terms phonological and visuospatial short-term memory will be used to refer to storage-only assessments of the respective informational domains, and complex memory tasks will be interpreted as tapping working memory.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The degree to which working memory deficits specifically constrain learning progress within children with recognized learning disabilities is less well understood.
“Although close links between memory function and individual variation in a range of aspects of learning and academic achievement in unselected samples of children are well established, the degree to which working memory deficits specifically constrain learning progress within children with recognized learning disabilities is less well understood.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“children suffering from developmental disorders or learning disabilities often display specific EF deficits, suggesting these deficits are risk factors for poor academic performance and development (e.g., Barkley, 1997; Gathercole et al., 2006; Schuchardt et al., 2008”
From Executive control training from middle childhood to adolescence (2014) · cites this paper as Gathercole et al., 2006
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- ConsistentF(5, 40) = 6.375reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(5,40)=6.375, p < .001”
- ConsistentF(6, 39) = 6.481reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(6,39)=6.481, p < .001”
- ConsistentF(5, 40) = 6.965reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(5,40)=6.965, p < .001”
- ConsistentF(6, 39) = 6.824reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(6,39)=6.824, p < .001”
- ConsistentF(5, 40) = 7.499reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(5,40)=7.499, p < .001”
- ConsistentF(5, 40) = 7.829reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(5,40)=7.829, p < .001”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Performance IQ t statistic does not match its coefficient and standard error
MinorIn Table 6, Model 4, dividing the Performance IQ coefficient of −0.020 by its standard error of 0.131 gives approximately −0.153, not the reported t of −0.882.
Reported -0.882 · recomputed -0.152672
“| Performance IQ | -0.020 | 0.131 | -0.022 | -0.882 |”
Reported percentages use a higher cutoff than the stated 85+ range
MinorTable 3 gives cumulative proportions through the 81-85 band of 0.78 for complex memory and 0.87 for visuospatial STM. Thus 22% and 13%, respectively, scored above 85-not the stated 9% and 4%.
“with very small proportions performing in the 85+ range that can be classified as average (9% and 4%, respectively).”
“| 81-85 | 0.78 | 0.35 | 0.87 | 0.33 | 0.46 | 0.57 | 0.65 |”
Citations
Cites
Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 · Cited by 15,798
Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. (1974) · Psychology of Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(08)60452-1 · Cited by 9,860
The episodic buffer: a new component of working memory?
Baddeley, A. (2000) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/s1364-6613(00)01538-2 · Cited by 7,359 · cited 1×
“In the inXuential working memory model of Baddeley and Hitch (1974), developed subsequently by Baddeley (1986, 2000), these components correspond to diVerent slave systems.”
The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity
Cowan, N. (2001) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x01003922 · Cited by 6,779 · cited 1×
“Other theorists have proposed that working memory consists of activated long-term memory representations and that STM is the subset of working memory that falls within the focus of attention (Cowan, 2001; Engle, Kane, & Tuholski, 1999).”
Individual differences in working memory and reading
Daneman, M., & Carpenter, P. A. (1980) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(80)90312-6 · Cited by 6,336 · cited 2×
“An example of a complex memory task is listening span, where participants are asked to make a meaning-based judgment about each of a series of spoken sentences and then to remember the last word of each sentence in sequence (e.g., Daneman & Carpenter, 1980).”
A capacity theory of comprehension: individual differences in working memory
Just, M. A., & Carpenter, P. A. (1992) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.99.1.122 · Cited by 4,153 · cited 1×
“Another inXuential conceptualization of working memory is of a limited resource that can be Xexibly allocated to support either processing or storage (e.g., Daneman & Carpenter, 1980; Just & Carpenter, 1992).”
The nature of phonological processing and its causal role in the acquisition of reading skills
Wagner, R. K., & Torgesen, J. K. (1987) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.101.2.192 · Cited by 3,303 · cited 1×
“…with both reading ability (e.g., Bradley & Bryant, 1985; Brady & Shankweiler, 1991; Catts, Gillispie, Leonard, Kail, & Miller, 2002; Stanovich & Siegel, 1994; Wagner & Torgesen, 1987; Wolf & Bowers, 1999) and mathematical skills (e.g., Geary, Hoard, & Hamson, 1999; Rourke & Conway, 1997).”
Working memory, short-term memory, and general fluid intelligence: A latent-variable approach.
Engle, R. W., Tuholski, S. W., Laughlin, J. E., & Conway, A. R. A. (1999) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.128.3.309 · Cited by 3,078
Models of Working Memory: Mechanisms of Active Maintenance and Executive Control
Miyake, A., & Shah, P. (1999) · Cited by 2,404
Exploring the Central Executive
Baddeley, A. (1996) · The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A · doi:10.1080/713755608 · Cited by 2,390 · cited 1×
“…Hitch (1974) model includes the central executive, responsible for a range of functions such as retrieval of information from long-term memory, regulation of information within working memory, attentional control of both encoding and retrieval strategies, and task shifting (Baddeley, 1986, 1996).”
The double-deficit hypothesis for the developmental dyslexias.
Wolf, M., & Bowers, P. G. (1999) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.91.3.415 · Cited by 1,924 · cited 1×
“…with both reading ability (e.g., Bradley & Bryant, 1985; Brady & Shankweiler, 1991; Catts, Gillispie, Leonard, Kail, & Miller, 2002; Stanovich & Siegel, 1994; Wagner & Torgesen, 1987; Wolf & Bowers, 1999) and mathematical skills (e.g., Geary, Hoard, & Hamson, 1999; Rourke & Conway, 1997).”
The Structure of Working Memory From 4 to 15 Years of Age
Gathercole, S. E., Pickering, S. J., Ambridge, B., & Wearing, H. (2004) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.40.2.177 · Cited by 1,795
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Cain, K., Oakhill, J., & Bryant, P. (2004) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.96.1.31 · Cited by 1,496 · cited 2×
“DiVerences in complex memory scores also persist both in children with reading comprehension problems and in children with other learning disabilities after diVerences in verbal IQ have been eliminated (Cain et al., 2004; Siegel & Ryan, 1989), indicating that complex memory taps more than verbal ability alone.”
Working Memory: The Multiple-Component Model
Baddeley, A. D., & Logie, R. H. (1999) · Models of Working Memory · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139174909.005 · Cited by 1,374
Mathematics and Learning Disabilities
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“More complex addition computations require memory-based problem solving involving either direct retrieval of facts or problem decomposition, leading to eventual automatic retrieval of facts (Geary, 2004).”
Stanovich, K. E., & Siegel, L. S. (1994) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.86.1.24 · Cited by 1,282 · cited 1×
“…associated with both reading ability (e.g., Bradley & Bryant, 1985; Brady & Shankweiler, 1991; Catts, Gillispie, Leonard, Kail, & Miller, 2002; Stanovich & Siegel, 1994; Wagner & Torgesen, 1987; Wolf & Bowers, 1999) and mathematical skills (e.g., Geary, Hoard, & Hamson, 1999; Rourke & Conway,…”
Executive functions and achievements in school: Shifting, updating, inhibition, and working memory
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Self-citationOperational efficiency and the growth of short-term memory span
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Working memory capacity and its relation to general intelligence
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“And despite close links between measures of fluid intelligence and working memory in adult samples (Conway et al., 2003; Engle et al., 1999), fluid intelligence shared no independent associations with either reading or mathematics in the present study.”
Engle, R. W., Kane, M. J., & Tuholski, S. W. (1999) · Models of Working Memory · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139174909.007 · Cited by 1,195 · cited 1×
“And despite close links between measures of fluid intelligence and working memory in adult samples (Conway et al., 2003; Engle et al., 1999), fluid intelligence shared no independent associations with either reading or mathematics in the present study.”
Wagner, R. K., Torgesen, J. K., Rashotte, C. A., Hecht, S. A., Barker, T. A., Burgess, S. R., Donahue, J., & Garon, T. (1997) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.33.3.468 · Cited by 1,077 · cited 2×
“…STM is signiWcantly associated with reading achievement over the early years of reading instruction, its role is as part of a general phonological awareness construct related to reading development rather than representing a causal factor per se (Wagner & Muse, in press; Wagner et al., 1997).”
Gathercole, S. E., Pickering, S. J., Knight, C. J., & Stegmann, Z. (2003) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.934 · Cited by 1,056
Self-citationShah, P., & Miyake, A. (1996) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.125.1.4 · Cited by 950 · cited 1×
“…span, appears to tap both the central executive and the phonological loop (Lobley, Gathercole, & Baddeley, 2005), whereas analogous visuospatial complex memory tasks (Jarvis & Gathercole, 2003; Shah & Miyake, 1996) may draw on the resources of the central executive and the visuospatial sketchpad.”
Rhyme and Reason in Reading and Spelling
Bradley, L. (1985) · University of Michigan Press eBooks · doi:10.3998/mpub.7194 · Cited by 884
The Development of Working Memory in Normally Achieving and Subtypes of Learning Disabled Children
Siegel, L. S., & Ryan, E. B. (1989) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1131037 · Cited by 842
The Development of Working Memory in Normally Achieving and Subtypes of Learning Disabled Children
Siegel, L. S., & Ryan, E. B. (1989) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1989.tb03528.x · Cited by 837 · cited 4×
“It is also well established that children with reading disabilities show signiWcant and marked decrements on working memory tasks relative to typically developing individuals (Siegel & Ryan, 1989; Swanson, 1994, 1999; Swanson, Ashbaker, & Lee, 1996).”
InfluentialHandbook of learning disabilities
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Phonological Processes in Literacy
(2013) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315044439 · Cited by 738 · cited 1×
“…tapped by tasks requiring the manipulation of phonological structure, are highly associated with both reading ability (e.g., Bradley & Bryant, 1985; Brady & Shankweiler, 1991; Catts, Gillispie, Leonard, Kail, & Miller, 2002; Stanovich & Siegel, 1994; Wagner & Torgesen, 1987; Wolf & Bowers, 1999)…”
Swanson, H. L., & Beebe-Frankenberger, M. (2004) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.96.3.471 · Cited by 638 · cited 3×
“The independence of the working memory association with severity of learning diYculties from phonological awareness skills is also consistent with other Wndings from studies of children with learning diYculties (e.g., Swanson & Beebe-Frankenberger, 2004).”
A structural analysis of working memory and related cognitive skills in young children
Alloway, T. P., Gathercole, S. E., Willis, C., & Adams, A.-M. (2004) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2003.10.002 · Cited by 606
Self-citationRelationships among processing speed, working memory, and fluid intelligence in children
Fry, A. F., & Hale, S. (2000) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0301-0511(00)00051-x · Cited by 606
Geary, D., Hoard, M. K., Byrd-Craven, J., & Desoto, M. (2004) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2004.03.002 · Cited by 594
Hecht, S. A., Torgesen, J. K., Wagner, R. K., & Rashotte, C. A. (2001) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1006/jecp.2000.2586 · Cited by 588
Cognitive approaches to the development of short-term memory
Gathercole, S. E. (1999) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/s1364-6613(99)01388-1 · Cited by 582 · cited 2×
“Gathercole et al. / Journal of Experimental Child Psychology xxx (2005) xxx–xxx YJECP 2870 No.”
Self-citationShort‐term and working memory in specific language impairment
Archibald, L. M. D., & Gathercole, S. E. (2006) · International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders · doi:10.1080/13682820500442602 · Cited by 553
Self-citationGeary, D. C., Hoard, M. K., & Hamson, C. O. (1999) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1006/jecp.1999.2515 · Cited by 467
Swanson, H. L., & Sachse-Lee, C. (2001) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1006/jecp.2000.2587 · Cited by 443 · cited 5×
“These associations have been found to persist after diVerences in performance IQ have been statistically controlled in samples of children with learning diYculties and normal range intelligence (e.g., Swanson & Sachse-Lee, 2001).”
InfluentialBayliss, D. M., Jarrold, C., Gunn, D. M., & Baddeley, A. D. (2003) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.132.1.71 · Cited by 427
Assessment of working memory in six- and seven-year-old children.
Gathercole, S. E., & Pickering, S. J. (2000) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.92.2.377 · Cited by 393 · cited 2×
“The Wnding that complex memory and phonological STM scores share dissociable links with learning abilities (e.g., Gathercole & Pickering, 2000; Swanson et al., 2004) also rules out the possibility that complex memory scores simply reXect the contribution of phonological STM abilities.”
Self-citationWorking Memory Deficits in Poor Comprehenders Reflect Underlying Language Impairments
Nation, K., Adams, J. W., Bowyer‐Crane, C., & Snowling, M. J. (1999) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1006/jecp.1999.2498 · Cited by 356
The Working Memory Test Battery for Children.
Pickering, S., & Gathercole, S. E. (2001) · Bristol Research (University of Bristol) · Cited by 347
Self-citationThe Role of Speed of Processing, Rapid Naming, and Phonological Awareness in Reading Achievement
Catts, H. W., Gillispie, M., Leonard, L. B., Kail, R. V., & Miller, C. (2002) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/00222194020350060301 · Cited by 329
Concurrent performance of two memory tasks: Evidence for domain-specific working memory systems
Cocchini, G., Logie, R. H., Sala, S. D., MacPherson, S. E., & Baddeley, A. (2002) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03194326 · Cited by 314
Working Memory in the Classroom
Gathercole, S. E., Lamont, E., & Alloway, T. P. (2006) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-012554465-8/50010-7 · Cited by 309
Self-citationSwanson, H. L. (1994) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/002221949402700107 · Cited by 272
Reading comprehension difficulties in children
Stothard, S. E., & Hulme, C. (1992) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/bf01027150 · Cited by 267 · cited 1×
“It has been argued that the key factor underlying individual diVerences on working memory tests is general verbal ability (Nation, Adams, Bowyer-Crane, & Snowling, 1999; Stothard & Hulme, 1992).”
Long-term stability of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Fourth Edition.
Watkins, M. W., & Smith, L. G. (2013) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/a0031653 · Cited by 264
Jarvis, H. L., & Gathercole, S. E. (2003) · Educational and Child Psychology · doi:10.53841/bpsecp.2003.20.3.123 · Cited by 251 · cited 1×
“…span, appears to tap both the central executive and the phonological loop (Lobley, Gathercole, & Baddeley, 2005), whereas analogous visuospatial complex memory tasks (Jarvis & Gathercole, 2003; Shah & Miyake, 1996) may draw on the resources of the central executive and the visuospatial sketchpad.”
Self-citationWhat develops in working memory? A life span perspective.
Swanson, H. L. (1999) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037//0012-1649.35.4.986 · Cited by 239 · cited 1×
“It is also well established that children with reading disabilities show signiWcant and marked decrements on working memory tasks relative to typically developing individuals (Siegel & Ryan, 1989; Swanson, 1994, 1999; Swanson, Ashbaker, & Lee, 1996).”
Are Mathematics Disabilities Due to a Domain-General or a Domain-Specific Working Memory Deficit?
Wilson, K. M., & Swanson, H. L. (2001) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/002221940103400304 · Cited by 224 · cited 1×
“In addition, low complex memory scores have been found to be strongly and speciWcally associated with both poor computational skills (Wilson & Swanson, 2001) and diYculties in solving mathematical problems expressed in everyday language (Swanson & Sachse-Lee, 2001).”
Gathercole, S. E., Tiffany, C., Briscoe, J., Thorn, A. S. C., & The ALSPAC team (2005) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00379.x · Cited by 218
Self-citationEvidence that IQ scores are irrelevant to the definition and analysis of reading disability.
Siegel, L. S. (1988) · Canadian Journal of Psychology/Revue Canadienne de Psychologie · doi:10.1037/h0084184 · Cited by 211 · cited 2×
“Although there is already some evidence that working memory skills are dissociable from verbal ability more generally (Cain, Oakhill, & Bryant, 2004; Siegel, 1988), it was important to test whether the two factors could be distinguished in the present wide-ranging set of children with learning difficulties.”
Swanson, H. L., & Howell, M. J. (2001) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.93.4.720 · Cited by 201 · cited 1×
“Links between complex memory scores and reading ability are well established, with scores predicting reading achievement independently of measures of phonological STM (e.g., Swanson, 2003; Swanson & Howell, 2001).”
Disabilities of Arithmetic and Mathematical Reasoning
Rourke, B. P., & Conway, J. A. (1997) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/002221949703000103 · Cited by 183 · cited 2×
“All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2005.08.003”
InfluentialDistinctive working memory profiles in children with special educational needs
Pickering, S. J., & Gathercole, S. E. (2004) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/0144341042000211715 · Cited by 177 · cited 2×
“A key Wnding was that working memory skill independently predicted the children’s attainments in reading and to a lesser extent in mathematics and that the contribution of working memory was common to both ability domains (see also Pickering & Gathercole, 2004).”
Self-citationOn the Association between Phonological Memory and Receptive Vocabulary in Five-Year-Olds
Bowey, J. A. (1996) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1006/jecp.1996.0042 · Cited by 169 · cited 2×
“It has been argued that both phonological processing and STM measures reflect a common phonological processing substrate (Bowey, 1996; Metsala, 1999).”
Learning disabled readers working memory as a function of processing demands
Swanson, H. L., Ashbaker, M. H., & Lee, C. (1996) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1006/jecp.1996.0016 · Cited by 157
Phonological Assessment Battery
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Pickering, S. J. (2006) · Cited by 136
Visuospatial Immediate Memory in Specific Language Impairment
Archibald, L. M. D., & Gathercole, S. E. (2006) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2006/022 · Cited by 118
Self-citationAge-related differences in learning disabled and skilled readers’ working memory
Swanson, H. L. (2003) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0022-0965(03)00043-2 · Cited by 115 · cited 1×
“Links between complex memory scores and reading ability are well established, with scores predicting reading achievement independently of measures of phonological STM (e.g., Swanson, 2003; Swanson & Howell, 2001).”
Memory difficulties in children and adults with learning disabilities.
Swanson, H. L., & Sáez, L. (2003) · Cited by 115
Visual patterns test: a test of short-term visual recall
Sala, S., Gray, C., Baddeley, A., & Wilson, L. (1997) · Bristol Research (University of Bristol) · Cited by 110
Working Memory and Classroom Learning
Holmes, J., Byrne, E. M., & Graham, A. J. (2022) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108955638.044 · Cited by 71
Learning Disabilities and Memory
Swanson, H. L., Cooney, J. B., & McNamara, J. K. (2004) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-012762533-1/50005-6 · Cited by 50
The development of phonemic awareness in reading-disabled children
Metsala, J. L. (1999) · Applied Psycholinguistics · doi:10.1017/s0142716499001058 · Cited by 43 · cited 1×
“It has been argued that both phonological awareness and STM measures reXect a common phonological processing substrate (Bowey, 1996; Metsala, 1999).”
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Phonological similarity effects in verbal complex span
Lobley, K. J., Baddeley, A., & Gathercole, S. E. (2005) · The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A · doi:10.1080/02724980443000700 · Cited by 40 · cited 1×
“…are moderately associated with one another (e.g., Gathercole & Pickering, 2000; Gathercole, Pickering, Knight, & Stegmann, 2004), possibly due to the role played by phonological STM in supporting the storage component of the complex memory measures (Baddeley & Logie, 1999; Lobley et al., 2005).”
Self-citationWorking Memory and Learning During the School Years
Gathercole, S. E. (2005) · British Academy eBooks · doi:10.5871/bacad/9780197263242.003.0014 · Cited by 28 · cited 4×
“A related view that we favor is that impairments of working memory result in pervasive learning diYculties because this system acts as a bottleneck for learning in many of the individual learning episodes required to increment the acquisition of knowledge (Gathercole, 2004).”
InfluentialSelf-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Bull, R., Espy, K. A., & Wiebe, S. A. (2008) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/87565640801982312 · Cited by 1,544
“Therefore, these tasks are included in the correlational analyses only with an indication of the number of children who completed the task.”
Phonological skills and their role in learning to read: A meta-analytic review.
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Investigating the predictive roles of working memory and IQ in academic attainment
Alloway, T. P., & Alloway, R. G. (2009) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2009.11.003 · Cited by 1,489
“Working memory capacity also has a significant impact on learning in various developmental disorders such as reading disabilities (Gathercole, Alloway, Willis, & Adams, 2006), language impairments (Alloway & Archibald, 2008), and motor difficulties (Alloway, 2007b).”
Self-citationAdaptive training leads to sustained enhancement of poor working memory in children
Holmes, J., Gathercole, S. E., & Dunning, D. L. (2009) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00848.x · Cited by 961
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Metadata
- Authors
- Gathercole, S. E., Alloway, T. P., Willis, C., & Adams, A.-M.
- Affiliations
- Durham University (GB)
- Liverpool John Moores University (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Gathercole, Susan Elizabeth
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Child Psychology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2006-03
- Volume
- 93
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 265-281
- ISSN
- 0022-0965 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2133978923
- Semantic Scholar
- 4967bfaabe86456c103c4e6416d600fccbf3012d
- Cited by
- 795
- References
- 66
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 26 · 2023: 28 · 2022: 40 · 2021: 35 · 2020: 37 · 2019: 47 · 2018: 43 · 2017: 41 · 2016: 52 · 2015: 59 · 2014: 60 · 2013: 53 · 2012: 54
- FWCI
- 30.35
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Child Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Stirling Online Research Repository (University of Stirling) (submittedVersion, public-domain)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Reading and Literacy Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Keywords
- working memory, reading disorders, dyslexia, short-term memory, phonological awareness, phonological working memory, fluid intelligence, verbal ability, mathematical ability, reading skills, children, low IQ, visuospatial memory, language skills
- MeSH terms
- Aptitude, Awareness, Child, Discrimination Learning, Dyslexia, Educational Status, Female, Humans, Intelligence, Language Development Disorders, Male, Mathematics, Memory, Short-Term, Neuropsychological Tests, Pattern Recognition, Visual, Phonetics, Problem Solving, Reading, Mental Recall, Statistics as Topic, Verbal Learning, Comprehension
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