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The curiosity and exploration inventory-II: Development, factor structure, and psychometrics
Open accessAbstract
Given curiosity's fundamental role in motivation, learning, and well-being, we sought to refine the measurement of trait curiosity with an improved version of the Curiosity and Exploration Inventory (CEI; Kashdan, Rose, & Fincham, 2004). A preliminary pool of 36 items was administered to 311 undergraduate students, who also completed measures of emotion, emotion regulation, personality, and well-being. Factor analyses indicated a two factor model-motivation to seek out knowledge and new experiences (Stretching; 5 items) and a willingness to embrace the novel, uncertain, and unpredictable nature of everyday life (Embracing; 5 items). In two additional samples (ns = 150 and 119), we cross-validated this factor structure and provided initial evidence for construct validity. This includes positive correlations with personal growth, openness to experience, autonomy, purpose in life, self-acceptance, psychological flexibility, positive affect, and positive social relations, among others. Applying item response theory (IRT) to these samples (n = 578), we showed that the items have good discrimination and a desirable breadth of difficulty. The item information functions and test information function were centered near zero, indicating that the scale assesses the mid-range of the latent curiosity trait most reliably. The findings thus far provide good evidence for the psychometric properties of the 10-item CEI-II.
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“Curiosity was measured using the curiosity and exploration inventory-II (Kashdan et al., 2009).”
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“…have used a variety of questionnaires to measure curiosity but two kinds are dominant: questionnaires that diagnose general curiosity 19,21,28,30– 32 and questionnaires concerning curiosity in relation to specific areas: interpersonal relations (e.g. Interpersonal Curiosity Scale),…”
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“Kashdan et al. (2009) breaks curiosity into two elements – exploration, or stretching, is being motivated to seek knowledge and new experiences; and embracing is a general willingness to embrace the novel, uncertain, and unpredictable nature of everyday life.”
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“In adults, positive accounts of curiosity similar to our conceptualization (e.g., Interest‐Type Epistemic Curiosity, Litman 2008; CEI Exploration Subscale, Kashdan et al. 2009) have been linked to higher Extraversion and Conscientiousness as well as lower Neuroticism (e.g., Hunter et al. 2016; Kashdan et al. 2018).”
InfluentialMarculescu, B., Brancu, L., Noja, G. G., Cristea, M., & Pantea, M. I. (2025) · Journal of the Knowledge Economy · doi:10.1007/s13132-025-02628-6 · Cited by 6
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Preschoolers' Scientific Curiosity and Inquiry Capabilities: An Ecological Research Approach
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“Previous studies indicate that two personality traits, which are curiosity (which is measured by the Trait Curiosity and Exploration Inventory-II [45] scale) or perseverance (which is a subscale of grit and can be measured by the Short Grit Scale [48] and length of stay in foreign countries, are significantly related t…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialΠαράγοντες διαμόρφωσης των επιστημικών συναισθημάτων: Ο ρόλος των «σφαλμάτων υψηλής βεβαιότητας»
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Closing the loop in minimally supervised human–robot interaction: formative and summative feedback
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“A questionnaire such as the Curiosity and Exploration Inventory 86 might help explain participant strategy.”
Beyond the words: Exploring individual differences in the evaluation of poetic creativity
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The adolescent Internet Adaptability Scale: Development and psychometric properties
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Examination of the impact of curiosity and fatigue on brain condition
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“CEI-II was originally developed by Kashdan et al. in 2009 13 , and the Japanese version was tested by Nishikawa et al. in 2015 14 and its effectiveness was confirmed.”
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Validation of the Curiosity and Exploration Inventory-II in Spanish University Students
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The mechanism and function of curiosity
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Self-citationIndividual Preferences for Truth-Telling
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“The young group of the present study had a mean age of 24.8, with a range of 18–30.”
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Personality Traits Mediating Sense of Belonging and Academic Curiosity among Students in Ghana
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“The experiment began with three questionnaires: the patient health questionnaire [22], curiosity and exploration inventory, and state anxiety questionnaire [23].”
MethodEvaluating Poetry: Navigating the Divide between Aesthetical and Creativity Judgments
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“Finally, participants completed questionnaires on demographic information and five personality traits, namely openness, intellect (DeYoung, Quilty, & Peterson, 2007), Vividness of Visual Imagery Questionnaire (VVIQ) (Marks, 1973), The Bucknell Auditory Imagery Scale — Vividness (BAIS-V, termed here as AVIQ, Auditory Vi…”
Åström, E., Sörman, D. E., Sörqvist, P., & Ljungberg, J. K. (2025) · Adult Education Quarterly · doi:10.1177/07417136241312174 · Cited by 12
“The questionnaire has demonstrated good internal reliability ( α = .85) and convergent validity with related constructs (Kashdan et al., 2009).”
InfluentialCuriosity from the Perspective of Educational Psychology: A General Review
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A Socio-Ecological Approach to Activity Games for Girls
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“High levels of uncertainty can result in helplessness [49] or an aversion for risks [65], while an appropriate level of uncertainty can induce curiosity and a willingness to try new things [43].”
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Self-Compassion as a Protective Factor for Adolescents Experiencing Adversity
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Predicting the Human Curiosity from Users' Profiles on Facebook
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“Finally, we have a large psychological study described in [19], where the CEI-II form is introduced.”
MethodENTREPRENEURIAL BUSINESS: GENETIC LOTTERY OR A CHOICE
Nikolić, S., Kovijanić, T., Mladenović, M., & Ćelić, Đ. (2020) · Journal of Business Economics and Management · doi:10.3846/jbem.2020.11763 · Cited by 5
Studying Dynamics of Human Information Gathering Behaviors Using Social Robots
Eshed, M., Epstein, M., Zohar, A. H., & Gordon, G. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.669198 · Cited by 5
Exploring Semantically Interlaced Cultural Heritage Narratives
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“Moreover, we asked them to fill in the Curiosity and Exploration Inventory-II (CEI-II) questionnaire [15].”
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Mauro, N., Cossatin, A. G., Cravero, E., Ardissono, L., Magnano, G., Giardino, M. J., & Mattutino, C. (2022) · ACM Conference on User Modeling, Adaptation and Personalization (UMAP) · doi:10.1145/3511047.3537649 · Cited by 5
“By grouping participants according to their motivation to seek out knowledge (Stretching component of the Curiosity and Exploration Inventory-II questionnaire, [11]), we discovered that the users having a high Stretching level appreciated the side walking functions offered by Triangolazioni more than the other ones.”
BackgroundCan curiosity spark the fire of innovation? An investigation in China
Li, R., Tian, J., Zhang, J., & Wu, S. (2022) · Applied Psychology · doi:10.1111/apps.12429 · Cited by 5
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“Specifically, user curiosity was assessed via Curiosity and Exploration Inventory-II (CEI-II) (Kashdan et al. 2009), which contains 10 itemsmeasuring user “motivation to seek out knowledge and new experiences” and “willingness to embrace the novel, uncertain, and unpredictable nature of everyday life.””
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“Such assessments include, but are not limited to the Values in Action (VIA) Inventory of Character Strengths (Peterson & Seligman, 2004), Satisfaction with Life scale (Diener, Emmons, Larson, & Griffin, 1985), Subjective Happiness scale (Lyubomirsky & Lepper, 1999), Life Orientation Test–Revised (Scheier, Carver, & Br…”
BackgroundAbstract reasoning, theory of mind and character development in the school
Alan, Ş., & Turkum, B. (2024) · Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization · doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2024.03.024 · Cited by 5
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“This measurement tool was developed by Kashdan et al. (2009) and consists of 10 items.”
Castellotti, S., Gragnoli, E., Baglioni, G., Criminisi, R., Giangrasso, B., & Viva, M. M. D. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0332321 · Cited by 7
“Curiosity was measured using the Curiosity and Exploration Inventory-II (CEI-II [83] – translated into Italian).”
Vaknin‐Nusbaum, V., & Rachevski, I. (2023) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/00222194231211947 · Cited by 6
The Protective Role of Curiosity Behaviors in Coping with Existential Vacuum
Gawda, B., & Korniluk, A. (2024) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs14050391 · Cited by 4
“Based on the theoretical background and research findings indicating the relationship between Curiosity and MIL, Curiosity and emotion regulation [59], Curiosity and mental/social well-being [60], Curiosity and emotional Distress [61], and relationships between MIL and the listed variables…”
BackgroundGrübel, J., Chatain, J., Schmid, C. L., Fayolle, V., Zünd, F., Gruber, R., & Stadlinger, B. (2025) · JMIR Serious Games · doi:10.2196/64751 · Cited by 10
“To account for this, we employed the Curiosity and Exploratory Inventory-II (CEI-II) [62], specifically focusing on students’ general curiosity traits.”
Who is playing that wonderful music? Exploring predictors of playing a musical instrument
Treger, S. (2018) · Psychology of Music · doi:10.1177/0305735618816178 · Cited by 4
“The curious show especial interest in a novel challenging task, such as playing music, in turn persisting to learn it through means such as self-regulation (Kashdan et al., 2009; Silvia, 2008, 2017).”
BackgroundCao, T. N., & Huang, S. (2020) · Proceedings of the Canadian Engineering Education Association (CEEA) · doi:10.24908/pceea.vi0.14201 · Cited by 4
Franklin, M., Yanar, B., & Feller, R. W. (2021) · The Journal of Macrodynamic Analysis (Memorial University of Newfoundland) · doi:10.82396/cjcd.v14i2.3090 · Cited by 4
Design Thinking as a Problem Solving Tool
de Villiers, R. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-19-2180-3_11 · Cited by 7
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Trending Now: Implicit Factors Influence Users’ Online Audiovisual Media Motivations and Engagement
Chapman, H. E., & Abraham, A. (2024) · Imagination Cognition and Personality · doi:10.1177/02762366241263842 · Cited by 5
“…and ambiguous events ” (Kashdan et al., 2018, p. 130), and can be studied in one of two ways: by differentiating the various dimensions of curiosity (e.g., social, intellectual; Kashdan et al., 2009) or as part of a single global trait (i.e., a subdimension of openness; Silvia & Christensen, 2020).”
Mahama, I., Edoh-Torgah, N. A., Miezah, D., Ammah, C., & Amponsah, M. O. (2024) · Discover Psychology · doi:10.1007/s44202-024-00233-3 · Cited by 7
“Furthermore, curious learners involve themselves in unique and confounding circumstances in their learning journey [31–33].”
DEEP: A model of gaming preferences informed by the hierarchical nature of goal-oriented cognition
Dubourg, E., & Chambon, V. (2025) · Entertainment Computing · doi:10.1016/j.entcom.2025.100930 · Cited by 5
Sütöri, S., Eliasson, E. T., Mura, F., Ortiz, V., Catrambone, V., Hadlaczky, G., Todorov, I., Alfeo, A. L., Cardi, V., Cimino, M. G. C. A., et al. (2025) · JMIR Formative Research · doi:10.2196/68132 · Cited by 6
“…to assess current DS severity; the Depression, Anxiety, Stress Scale (DASS) [29] to assess current depressive, anxiety and stress symptom severity; the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS-SF) [30] to evaluate emotional state; as well as the Curiosity and Explorations Inventory-II [31].”
The effect of cognitive style and curiosity on information task multitasking
Manyangara, A., & Toms, E. G. (2010) · Information Interaction in Context Symposium (IIiX) · doi:10.1145/1840784.1840793 · Cited by 4
Aghababaei, N., Krauss, S. W., Aminikhoo, M., & Isaak, S. L. (2018) · Psychology of Religion and Spirituality · doi:10.1037/rel0000187 · Cited by 4
Positive Psychology, Positive L2 Self, and L2 Motivation: A Longitudinal Investigation
Kikuchi, K., & Lake, J. (2021) · Second language learning and teaching · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-64444-4_5 · Cited by 6
Zurn, P., Zhou, D., Lydon‐Staley, D. M., & Bassett, D. S. (2022) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009026949.013 · Cited by 6
Motivation and Demotivation of Hackers in Selecting a Hacking Task
Owen, K., & Head, M. M. (2022) · Journal of Computer Information Systems · doi:10.1080/08874417.2022.2081883 · Cited by 4
Siew, N. M., & Ahmad, J. (2023) · Problems of Education in the 21st Century · doi:10.33225/pec/23.81.130 · Cited by 4
“Curiosity will encourage a student to process information in more detail, remember information better, and complete tasks more efficiently (Kashdan et al., 2009).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialWatanabe, K., Kokubun, K., & Yamakawa, Y. (2023) · Life · doi:10.3390/life13030667 · Cited by 4
“The assessed items were as follows: Personal Growth Initiative Scale-II) [30,31], Satisfaction with Life Scale [32], Subjective Happiness Scale [33,34], Curiosity and Exploration Inventory-II [35], Short Grit Scale (Grit-S) [36], Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale [37,38], and Perceived Stress Scale [39] (Tables 1 and 2).”
MethodInfluentialTEMUR, G., & Aşιk, G. (2023) · Ege Eğitim Dergisi · doi:10.12984/egeefd.1184823 · Cited by 4
Kokubun, K., Nemoto, K., Shiga, Y., Makizato, Y., Komaki, A., & Yamakawa, Y. (2024) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104663 · Cited by 4
Curiosity and Student Learning in General Education in Hong Kong
Ye, S. S., Ng, T. K., Wang, J., & Lee, T. K. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-287-576-1_17 · Cited by 4
AlShamsi, S. S. S. (2017) · International Conference on Advances in Business Management and Law (ICABML) · doi:10.30585/icabml-cp.v1i1.26 · Cited by 4
On the Psychology of the Psychology Subject Pool
Sadeghiyeh, H., Wang, S., Kyllo, H. M., Alberhasky, M. R., Savita, S., Kellohen, K. L., & Wilson, R. C. (2020) · Journal of Individual Differences · doi:10.1027/1614-0001/a000327 · Cited by 4
Predictors of Self-Directed Learning Readiness of Nursing Students
Grandinetti, M. (2015) · US-China Education Review A · doi:10.17265/2161-623x/2015.07a.001 · Cited by 4
“A sample of 311 undergraduates from a large, public mid-Atlantic university was asked to participate in a study by Kashdan et al. (2009).”
BackgroundInfluentialÖğretmen Adaylarının Merak ve Keşfetme Algıları ile Okumaya Yönelik Tutumları Arasındaki İlişki
KIRMIZI, F. S., & Kapıkıran, Ş. (2019) · Ahi Evran Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi · doi:10.31592/aeusbed.585328 · Cited by 4
The MED scale: regional variation in values and beliefs, evidence from Italy
Petruzzellis, L., Craig, C. S., & Palumbo, A. (2017) · EuroMed Journal of Business · doi:10.1108/emjb-07-2015-0037 · Cited by 4
Lydon‐Staley, D. M., Zurn, P., & Bassett, D. S. (2018) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/2vf94 · Cited by 5
The history of anatomical engagement
Wessels, Q., & Taylor, A. M. (2025) · Anatomical Sciences Education · doi:10.1002/ase.70000 · Cited by 3
Liang, X., Said, S. M., & Li, Z. (2025) · Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching · doi:10.1080/17501229.2025.2526119 · Cited by 3
“Their curiosity encourages them to constantly apprehend or interact with the unfamiliar (Kashdan et al. 2009).”
Beck, M. (2022) · Recherche et Applications en Marketing (French Edition) · doi:10.1177/07673701211048516 · Cited by 3
“…l’échelle de Dodds et al. (1991) l’intention d’achat en magasin et sur le site, l’échelle de Peck et Childers (2003) le besoin de toucher le produit ; l’échelle de Kashdan et al. (2009) la curiosité trait et l’échelle de Zaichkowsky (1987) l’implication durable dans la catégorie de produit.”
Worrell, F. C., & Luo, H. (2024) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2024.102038 · Cited by 3
Ren, Z., Chen, Q., Li, X., Wei, D., & Qiu, J. (2024) · Creativity Research Journal · doi:10.1080/10400419.2024.2431785 · Cited by 3
“The Curiosity and Exploration Inventory II (CEI-II; Kashdan et al., 2009) is one such widely recognized instrument.”
InfluentialBrown, G., & Grays, M. P. (2020) · New Zealand Journal of Educational Studies · doi:10.1007/s40841-020-00178-w · Cited by 3
Development of the tendency scale for scientific values: A validity and reliability study
Herdem, K., & Ünal, İ. (2020) · Research in Pedagogy · doi:10.5937/istrped2002108h · Cited by 3
“A curious learner likes complexities, is open to new experiences, is sensitive to differences, and has the abilities to determine assumptions and produce antithesis (Kashdan et al., 2009).”
InfluentialLiu, S., Peng, M., & Lewandowski, G. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-02585-8 · Cited by 3
Herzog, S., Nichter, B., Hill, M. L., Norman, S. B., & Pietrzak, R. H. (2022) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2022.02.021 · Cited by 3
Metadata
- Authors
- Kashdan, T. B., Gallagher, M. W., Silvia, P. J., Winterstein, B. P., Breen, W. E., Terhar, D., & Steger, M. F.
- Affiliations
- George Mason University (US)
- University of Kansas (US)
- University of North Carolina at Greensboro (US)
- Colorado State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Kashdan, Todd B.
- Venue
- Journal of Research in Personality
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2009-12
- Volume
- 43
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 987-998
- ISSN
- 0092-6566 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC2770180
- OpenAlex
- W2107615426
- Cited by
- 674
- References
- 113
- Citations by year
- 2026: 73 · 2025: 68 · 2024: 67 · 2023: 65 · 2022: 72 · 2021: 49 · 2020: 44 · 2019: 49 · 2018: 29 · 2017: 38 · 2016: 31 · 2015: 26 · 2014: 17 · 2013: 17 · 2012: 13
- FWCI
- 11.43
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Journal of Research in Personality (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (R21MH073937)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Psychological and Educational Research Studies
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Keywords
- trait curiosity, scale development, factor structure, construct validity, item response theory, psychological flexibility, positive affect, well-being, openness to experience
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