The DOI matches its Crossref record; 108 of the 113 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
The curiosity and exploration inventory-II: Development, factor structure, and psychometrics
Open accessAbstract
Given curiosity's fundamental role in motivation, learning, and well-being, we sought to refine the measurement of trait curiosity with an improved version of the Curiosity and Exploration Inventory (CEI; Kashdan, Rose, & Fincham, 2004). A preliminary pool of 36 items was administered to 311 undergraduate students, who also completed measures of emotion, emotion regulation, personality, and well-being. Factor analyses indicated a two factor model-motivation to seek out knowledge and new experiences (Stretching; 5 items) and a willingness to embrace the novel, uncertain, and unpredictable nature of everyday life (Embracing; 5 items). In two additional samples (ns = 150 and 119), we cross-validated this factor structure and provided initial evidence for construct validity. This includes positive correlations with personal growth, openness to experience, autonomy, purpose in life, self-acceptance, psychological flexibility, positive affect, and positive social relations, among others. Applying item response theory (IRT) to these samples (n = 578), we showed that the items have good discrimination and a desirable breadth of difficulty. The item information functions and test information function were centered near zero, indicating that the scale assesses the mid-range of the latent curiosity trait most reliably. The findings thus far provide good evidence for the psychometric properties of the 10-item CEI-II.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999) · Structural Equation Modeling A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1080/10705519909540118 · Cited by 108,788 · cited 1×
“Current guidelines regarding model fit indices (Brown, 2006; Hu & Bentler, 1999; Kline, 2004) suggest that CFA/ NNFI values P.95, and RMSEA/SRMR values 6.08 indicate good model fit.”
BackgroundInfluentialRyan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037//0003-066x.55.1.68 · Cited by 54,599 · cited 1×
“…that are identical to curiosity: ''Perhaps no single phenomenon reflects the positive potential of human nature as much as intrinsic motivation, the inherent tendency to seek out novelty and challenges, to extend and exercise one's capacities, to explore, and to learn " (Ryan & Deci, 2000, p. 70).”
BackgroundPrinciples and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling
Tabri, N., & Elliott, C. M. (2012) · Canadian Graduate Journal of Sociology and Criminology · doi:10.15353/cgjsc.v1i1.3787 · Cited by 39,094
(1998) · Cited by 36,049
The "what" and "why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1207/s15327965pli1104_01 · Cited by 34,210 · cited 2×
“Besides the social benefits linked to curiosity, other psychological needs for autonomy and self-acceptance ([Deci and Ryan, 2000] and [Ryff, 1989]) were more likely to be satisfied for highly curious people.”
BackgroundDevelopment and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales.
Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063 · Cited by 32,433
James, W. (1891) · Personality Culture Society · doi:10.1037/11059-000 · Cited by 25,876
Comparative fit indexes in structural models.
Bentler, P. M. (1990) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.107.2.238 · Cited by 25,266 · cited 1×
“** p < .001. imation (RMSEA; Steiger & Lind, 1980), the standardized root mean residual (SRMR; Jöreskog & Sörbom, 1996), the non-normed fit index (NNFI; Bentler & Bonett, 1980), and the comparative fit index (CFI; Bentler, 1990).”
BackgroundSignificance tests and goodness of fit in the analysis of covariance structures.
Bentler, P. M., & Bonett, D. G. (1980) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.88.3.588 · Cited by 20,015 · cited 1×
“** p < .001. imation (RMSEA; Steiger & Lind, 1980), the standardized root mean residual (SRMR; Jöreskog & Sörbom, 1996), the non-normed fit index (NNFI; Bentler & Bonett, 1980), and the comparative fit index (CFI; Bentler, 1990).”
BackgroundConfirmatory factor analysis for applied research
Brown, T. A. (2007) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.44-2769 · Cited by 15,621 · cited 3×
“Current guidelines regarding model fit indices (Brown, 2006; Hu & Bentler, 1999; Kline, 2004) suggest that CFA/ NNFI values P.95, and RMSEA/SRMR values 6.08 indicate good model fit.”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- Berlyne, 1967, Arousal and reinforcement, Vol. 15, 1
- Tomkins, 1962, Vol. 1
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 601–672 of 672
Wang, Q., Zhang, Y., & Huang, H. (2025) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-7053174/v1
Güneşlice, A., Önder, F. C., & Kaya, B. (2025) · Kocaeli Üniversitesi Eğitim Dergisi · doi:10.33400/kuje.1612922
(2025) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/979-8-88730-891-320251012
Wu, D., Tong, S., Yuan, M., & Yuan, Y. (2025) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-025-09755-2
“High levels of curiosity may correlate with an increased tendency to experience learning flow, which in turn is associated with better academic performance (Kashdan et al., 2009 ).”
Exploring the Convergence of Curiosity Across Behavioural Tasks and Personality Trait Questionnaires
Jach, H. K. (2025) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.70113
When Motivation Undermines Learning: A Dual-Theory Perspective on Curiosity
Mishra, P., & Rangnekar, S. (2025) · Acta Universitatis Bohemiae Meridionalis · doi:10.32725/acta.2025.012 · Cited by 1
Measuring Information PreferencesPreprint
Hagmann, D., Loewenstein, G. F., & Ho, E. (2020) · OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints)
Chen, H.-Y., Chang, Y.-Y., & Kao, C.-P. (2025) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2025.102021
Johnson, C. L., Gleason, A., & Booker, J. A. (2025) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2025.113620 · Cited by 1
Creativity and Curiosity (in Mathematics) = 2C or C2? Multiple Facets, Confluence and Contrast
Лейкин, Р. (2025) · Research in mathematics education · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-99082-3_3
Ladeira, W. J., Mattila, A. S., Pinto, D. C., Shaheen, M., & Santini, F. (2026) · Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research · doi:10.1177/10963480261415826
“The level of curiosity was assessed through three items adapted from Kashdan et al. (2009) (“I sought as much information as I can in this in the signs”; “I saw in the signs an opportunity to learn”; and “The signs offered me for experiences to understand my choice”; α = .741).”
Ranjbar, F., Yoon, S. Y., & Imbrie, P. K. (2025) · IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE) · doi:10.1109/fie63693.2025.11328361
Personality dynamics and trait change on the year abroad
Moore, I., Birney, D. P., Singh, A., & Beckmann, N. (2026) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2026.104706
Flores, M. D. P. A., Fernández‐Sogorb, A., Fuster‐Rico, A., & Pérez‐Marco, M. (2026) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2026.106230
Yang, A., Manaswi, A., Fischer, M. W., Fischer, I. C., Na, P. J., & Pietrzak, R. H. (2026) · Journal of Aging and Health · doi:10.1177/08982643261423254
Curiosity in Later Life: Identifying Psychosocial Predictors Using Random Forest Modeling
Liou, S., & Morgan, C. A. (2026) · Societies · doi:10.3390/soc16020061
“Subjective age and desired life-time duration measures elements of individuals’ subjective age, life position, and expectancy [21,22].”
Yang, A., Manaswi, A., Fischer, I. C., Na, P. J., Norman, S. B., & Pietrzak, R. H. (2026) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2026.121461
Emin, M., Liu, Y., Yao, Q., & Yadan, L. I. (2026) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2026.102336
Brain connectivity correlating with curiosity is chain-mediated by anxiety and resilience
Tang, S., Wang, X., Chen, Q., & Qiu, J. (2026) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-026-10208-7
Beyond Information Amount: Rethinking Transparency through Active Reasoning Demand
Zhang, X., Ye, Y., Ma, Y., Zhang, Z. T., & Butz, A. M. (2026) · ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI) · doi:10.1145/3757279.3785623
“To account for individual differences, we included the Curiosity and Exploration Inventory-II (CEI-II) [25] to measure participants’ trait curiosity, and the six-item short form of the Need for Cognition Scale (NCS-6) [29] to assess their tendency to engage in and enjoy effortful cognitive activity.”
Smith, A., Galeote, D. F., Legaki, N.-Z., & Hamari, J. (2026) · International GamiFIN Conference (GamiFIN) · doi:10.1145/3789624.3789626
“Trait curiosity was assessed with the Curiosity and Exploration Inventory-II (CEI-II) [23] as a pre-test, consisting of two five-item subscales— stretching and embracing —rated on a seven-point Likert scale (1 = very untrue of me , 7 = very true of me ).”
Eliasson, E. T., Sütöri, S., Mura, F., Ortiz, V., Catrambone, V., Hadlaczky, G., Todorov, I., Alfeo, A. L., Cardi, V., Cimino, M. G. C. A., et al. (2026) · JMIR Formative Research · doi:10.2196/80120
“…online screening tool were invited into the testing lab at the University of Padua, whereby those who wished to proceed provided written informed consent and completed a pre-VR questionnaire battery consisting of providing demographic information and completing the DASS-21 [52] and the CEI-II [5].”
InfluentialChui, W., Andrus, B., Uttal, D. H., & Horn, M. (2026) · Int. J. Child Comput. Interact. · doi:10.1016/j.ijcci.2026.100820
Cunff, A. L., Russell, C., & Dommett, E. J. (2026) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-026-04504-7
“Curiosity was measured using the Curiosity and Exploration Inventory-II (CEI-II), a 10-item self-report instrument comprising two 5-item subscales [17].”
InfluentialSmithson, M. J. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780198960614.003.0006
Creating Ignorance through Absences
Smithson, M. J. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780198960614.003.0010
Closing Gaps and Making Connections
Smithson, M. J. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780198960614.003.0012
Smithson, M. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780198960614.002.0005
Smithson, M. J. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780198960614.003.0009
Smithson, M. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780198960614.002.0004
Smithson, M. J. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780198960614.003.0002
Creating Ignorance through Falsehoods
Smithson, M. J. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780198960614.003.0011
Smithson, M. J. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780198960614.003.0005
Smithson, M. J. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780198960614.003.0007
Smithson, M. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780198960614.003.0004
Smithson, M. J. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780198960614.003.0008
Ignorance Studies, Where Is Psychology?
Smithson, M. J. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780198960614.003.0001
What Do We Think Others Are Missing?
Smithson, M. J. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780198960614.003.0003
Ganuthula, V. R. R., & Kumari, N. (2026) · Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies · doi:10.1155/hbe2/6725387
Wang, L., Chen, X., Sun, L., & Chen, C. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1776932 · Cited by 4
“Curiosity was measured using a scale adapted from prior research on epistemic curiosity and learning motivation (e.g., Kashdan et al., 2009).”
Dang, Y., & Lu, S. (2025) · International Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Digital Media Technology and Interaction Design (ICADI) · doi:10.1145/3795926.3795971
Curiosity in tourism: A review and future directions
Langmann, S., Bezemer, P., Park, E., & Kim, S. (2026) · Tourism Management Perspectives · doi:10.1016/j.tmp.2026.101482
Li, R., Fu, W., Yuqian, L., Zhao, Y., & Peng, P. (2026) · Cognitive Processing · doi:10.1007/s10339-026-01348-2
“The Curiosity and Exploration Inventory-II (CEI-II), which was translated and revised by Ye et al. (2015) based on the Curiosity and Exploration Inventory-II (CEI-II) developed by Kashdan et al. (2009 ), was used to measure the CC situation of the college students from a trait perspective.”
From Instrumental Intelligence to Transformational Wisdom: A Virtue-Based Profile of Good Thinking
Han, Y., Ratchford, J. L., Fleeson, W., & Jayawickreme, E. (2026) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-16951-8_7
A Context-Aware Cultural Heritage Guide Powered by LLMs
Ardissono, L., Ferrero, F., Cossatin, A. G., Mattutino, C., & Mauro, N. (2026) · ACM Conference on User Modeling, Adaptation and Personalization (UMAP) · doi:10.1145/3774935.3812714
Explanation Demand as a Trait, Not a State: Implications for User Modeling in Adaptive Systems
Ingesson, E., & Riveiro, M. (2026) · ACM Conference on User Modeling, Adaptation and Personalization (UMAP) · doi:10.1145/3774935.3806160
“Curiosity was measured using the 10-item Curiosity and Ex-ploration Inventory–II (CEI-II) [33], which assesses individuals’ tendency to seek out novel information and embrace uncertainty.”
When Algorithms Create Culture: An Integrative Model of Consumer Acceptance of AI-Generated Music
Douros, P., Kasaras, K., & Milioris, K. (2026) · AI · doi:10.3390/ai7060212
“This is consistent with Kashdan et al.’s [29] two-dimensional model of trait curiosity—stretching (the motivation to seek new knowledge) and embracing (willingness to accept novelty and uncertainty)—both of which are likely activated when consumers encounter AI-generated music for the first time.”
Farrukh, M., Arkhangelskaya, M., Kondrateva, S., Lu, O., Wu, Q., & Zhang, Y. (2026) · Journal of Entrepreneurship in Emerging Economies · doi:10.1108/jeee-09-2025-0527
What Drives Higher Curiosity? The Personality Profile of Highly Curious IT EngineersPreprint
KISHIMOTO, K., & Mõttus, R. (2026) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.6945290
Pan, R., Liu, X., Sun, C., & Li, W. (2026) · Nurse Education Today · doi:10.1016/j.nedt.2026.107243
Liu, J., Xu, K., Ferguson, J. F., Kang, K., Wang, Y., Qiu, Y., Shao, L., Tu, S., Nguyen, T. T., Lin, T., et al. (2026) · Statistics in Medicine · doi:10.1002/sim.70654
Khasawneh, Y. J. A., Ayasrah, M. N., Almulla, M. O., & Alismail, A. M. (2026) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2026.2700474
Yang, D., & Zhang, J. (2026) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.1177/00315125261468854
Jiang, X., & Huang, X. (2026) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs16081387
“Research on curiosity suggests that it encourages exploration and information seeking, particularly when individuals encounter novel or complex situations (Jirout & Klahr, 2012; Kashdan et al., 2009).”
Chen, X. Y., Shi, L., Yu, W., & Chao, C. (2026) · Journal Of Vacation Marketing · doi:10.1177/13567667261476330
Harnessing Diversity: Majority‐Group Acculturation Predicts Creativity and Flourishing Over Time
Colledge, D., Lefringhausen, K., Dauber, D., Zhu, Y., Kim, K. H., Ferenczi, N., Kunst, J. R., Marshall, T. C., Zagefka, H., & Cristea, M. (2026) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.70106
Suleiman, A. A. (2025) · JISR management and social sciences & economics · doi:10.31384/jisrmsse/2025.23.4.1
Güleşce, M., Şimşek, B., Aktaş, S., Solmaz, S., Malchrowicz-Mośko, E., & Staśkiewicz‐Bartecka, W. (2026) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app16178431
Lee, J., Lee, S., & Hahn, S. (2026) · ACM Symposium on Applied Perception · doi:10.1145/3821409.3833904
Kim, T., Lu, S., & Cho, H. (2026) · International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1612197x.2026.2722544
Smith, A., Galeote, D. F., Legaki, N.-Z., & Hamari, J. (2026) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2026.2720585
Fang, L. L., Allan, A., & Dickson, J. M. (2026) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph23091137
Datt, S. (2026) · Integrative Psychological and Behavioral Science · doi:10.1007/s12124-026-10025-0
“Kashdan and colleagues have argued that curiosity is generally adaptive, promoting well-being, meaning, and growth (Kashdan & Steger, 2007; Kashdan et al., 2009).”
Wallace, J. K., Batra, M., Wani, T. A., Liem, M. K., Ovenden, K., Boyd, J., Keane, T., & Khan, U. R. (2026) · JMIR Human Factors · doi:10.2196/101963
“Curiosity, defined as an intrinsic motivation to seek information and explore technologies, is conceptually distinct from digital literacy or confidence [18,19].”
Ratna, M. K., & Sawitri, H. S. R. (2026) · IJORER International Journal of Recent Educational Research · doi:10.46245/ijorer.v7i5.1487
“To measure the study variables, curiosity was assessed using the Curiosity and Exploration Inventory-II (Kashdan et al., 2009), whereas proactive personality was evaluated using the scale developed by Bateman and Crant (1993).”
Garcia-Megias, A., Vilariño, C. S., Cobreros, R. R., Ruiz-Curado, S., & Díaz-Milanés, D. (2026) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-10870256/v1
Existential Predictors of AI Anxiety: A Cross‐Sectional Study
Gobet, F. R., Yousaf, O., Evans, N., & Chatfield-Jouin, F. (2026) · The Journal of Humanistic Counseling · doi:10.1002/johc.70065
“The Existential Reflection Scale (ERS; Yousaf et al., 2026) measures the interest and curiosity that a person has in existential questions and in questions pertaining to purpose and meaning of life.”
InfluentialTaştan, S., & Cevheroğlu, S. (2026) · Nurse Education Today · doi:10.1016/j.nedt.2026.107432
Chen, S., Zhang, X., & Tang, X. (2026) · Applied Psychology Health and Well-Being · doi:10.1111/aphw.70228
Apathy is associated with lower perceptual curiosity
Tay, L., Cooper, P., Colton, E., Halim, J. A., Bode, S., & Chong, T. T. ‐. (2026) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2026.106742
Bao, W., Hashim, N. S., & Rafi, K. N. (2026) · Journal of Marketing Communications · doi:10.1080/13527266.2026.2746733
Metadata
- Authors
- Kashdan, T. B., Gallagher, M. W., Silvia, P. J., Winterstein, B. P., Breen, W. E., Terhar, D., & Steger, M. F.
- Affiliations
- George Mason University (US)
- University of Kansas (US)
- University of North Carolina at Greensboro (US)
- Colorado State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Kashdan, Todd B.
- Venue
- Journal of Research in Personality
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2009-12
- Volume
- 43
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 987-998
- ISSN
- 0092-6566 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC2770180
- OpenAlex
- W2107615426
- Cited by
- 674
- References
- 113
- Citations by year
- 2026: 73 · 2025: 68 · 2024: 67 · 2023: 65 · 2022: 72 · 2021: 49 · 2020: 44 · 2019: 49 · 2018: 29 · 2017: 38 · 2016: 31 · 2015: 26 · 2014: 17 · 2013: 17 · 2012: 13
- FWCI
- 11.43
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Journal of Research in Personality (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (R21MH073937)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Psychological and Educational Research Studies
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Keywords
- trait curiosity, scale development, factor structure, construct validity, item response theory, psychological flexibility, positive affect, well-being, openness to experience
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
