Cited by 674Psychological and Educational Research StudiesPsychometric Methodologies and TestingPersonality Traits and Psychology

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The curiosity and exploration inventory-II: Development, factor structure, and psychometrics

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Kashdan, Todd B., Gallagher, Matthew W., Silvia, Paul J., Winterstein, Beate P., Breen, William E., Terhar, Daniel, Steger, Michael F.·2009·Journal of Research in Personality

DOI 10.1016/j.jrp.2009.04.011PMC PMC2770180

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Abstract

Given curiosity's fundamental role in motivation, learning, and well-being, we sought to refine the measurement of trait curiosity with an improved version of the Curiosity and Exploration Inventory (CEI; Kashdan, Rose, & Fincham, 2004). A preliminary pool of 36 items was administered to 311 undergraduate students, who also completed measures of emotion, emotion regulation, personality, and well-being. Factor analyses indicated a two factor model-motivation to seek out knowledge and new experiences (Stretching; 5 items) and a willingness to embrace the novel, uncertain, and unpredictable nature of everyday life (Embracing; 5 items). In two additional samples (ns = 150 and 119), we cross-validated this factor structure and provided initial evidence for construct validity. This includes positive correlations with personal growth, openness to experience, autonomy, purpose in life, self-acceptance, psychological flexibility, positive affect, and positive social relations, among others. Applying item response theory (IRT) to these samples (n = 578), we showed that the items have good discrimination and a desirable breadth of difficulty. The item information functions and test information function were centered near zero, indicating that the scale assesses the mid-range of the latent curiosity trait most reliably. The findings thus far provide good evidence for the psychometric properties of the 10-item CEI-II.

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Trauma, multimorbidity, and functional resilience in U.S. veterans
Manaswi, A., Yang, A., Fischer, I. C., Na, P. J., & Pietrzak, R. H. (2025) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2025.12.029 · Cited by 1
Structure and Cross-Cultural Invariance of the Curiosity and Exploration Inventory-II in Adults from Five Countries
Quispe-Callo, G., Ramos‐Vera, C., Tan, C.-S., & Saintila, J. (2025) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/21582440251383600 · Cited by 1
“Curiosity and Exploration Inventory II (CEI-II; Kashdan et al., 2009).”
Influential
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Luo, W. (2026) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2026.106355 · Cited by 1
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Addisu, K. B., & Rhee, H. (2026) · Journal of Global Marketing · doi:10.1080/08911762.2026.2623011 · Cited by 1
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The Psychology of Ignorance
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Tanlası, B., Saka, R. Ş., Demırcı, İ., Ümmet, D., & Eksı, H. (2026) · Batı anadolu eğitim bilimleri dergisi · doi:10.51460/baebd.1560858 · Cited by 1
Be curious and persistent: joint roles of curiosity and persistence in adolescents’ STEM achievements
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“Curiosity was measured in the fall semester by the Curiosity and Exploration Inventory-II (Kashdan et al., 2009) with four items: (1) I actively seek as much information as I can in new situations; (2) I am at my best when doing something complex or challenging; (3) I view challenging situations as an opportunity to g…”
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“Subscales most directly reflecting task involvement — Interest/ Enjoyment, Effort/Importance, Value/Usefulness — showed similar correlation patterns with other constructs, mainly with Attitude, Challenge, and Curiosity.”
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“The CEI-II has shown good validity and reliability in past research (Kashdan et al., 2009 ).”
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“Kashdan, Rose, and Fincham (2004) and Kashdan, Gallagher, Silvia, Winterstein, Breen, Terhar, et al. (2009) defined curiosity as a positive emotional-motivational system associated with the recognition, pursuit, and self-regulation of novelty and challenge.”
BackgroundMethod
A new experimental setup to study the structure of curiosity-driven exploration in humans
Miard, B., Rouanet, P., Grizou, J., Lopes, M. C., Gottlieb, J. P., Baranès, A., & Oudeyer, P. (2014) · IEEE International Conference on Development and Learning (ICDL) · doi:10.1109/devlrn.2014.6983006 · Cited by 1
“This pre-questionnaire also include the CEI2 questionnaire [12], a psychological test designed to evaluate level of curiosity.”
Method
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From induction to relief: Neurophysiological mechanisms underlying the curiosity feedback loop
Nianqu, C. (2022) · Advances in Psychological Science · doi:10.3724/sp.j.1042.2023.00256 · Cited by 1
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“Kashdan et al. (2009) to measure curiosity and adapted to Turkish by Acun et al. (2013).”
Background
Lighting the fire of curiosity: How agents of transformation can ignite and sustain transformative consumer journeys
Komarova, Y., Ball, J., Hüttl‐Maack, V., Bayuk, J. B., Rabino, R., Droms, C. M., Bui, M., Fotheringham, D., & Smith, H. (2025) · AMS Review · doi:10.1007/s13162-024-00295-5 · Cited by 1
“Curiosity has been defined as the desire for knowledge and information (e.g., Berlyne, 1954; Hsee & Ruan, 2020; Kupor et al., 2021; Litman, 2008; Loewenstein, 1994; Van Dijk & Zeelenberg, 2007) and results in exploratory, information seeking behaviors (e.g., Kashdan & Silvia, 2009).”
Influential
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“The knowledge questionnaire included the contents of Dunhuang Caves and star atlas themes, and each theme questionnaire contained 11 multiple-choice questions with 1 point for each question; the curiosity questionnaire used the curiosity scale by T. B. Kashdan et al. [11], which contained ten items.”
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“From this perspective, individuals are more likely to be curious about cues / stimuli they perceive as innovative (i.e. the presence of QR codes on graves) (Kashdan et al. 2009; Yang, Carlson, and Chen 2020).”
Curiosity and Compassion: Curiosity and Attachment Security's Relationship with Empathic Responding to Hardship
Cairo, A. H. (2015) · VCU Scholars Compass (Virginia Commonwealth University) · doi:10.25772/kj99-vf62 · Cited by 1
“Regarding the choice for sample size, prior research indicates a high correlation between trait curiosity measured by the CEI-II and positive relations (measured as a factor of the Psychological Well-Being Scale), which had an effect size of f2 = .12 (R2 = .11; Kashdan et al., 2009).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential

Authors: Kashdan, T. B., Gallagher, M. W., Silvia, P. J., Winterstein, B. P., Breen, W. E., Terhar, D., & Steger, M. F.
Affiliations: George Mason University (US)
University of Kansas (US)
University of North Carolina at Greensboro (US)
Colorado State University (US)
Corresponding author: Kashdan, Todd B.
ORCID: Kashdan, Todd B.
Gallagher, Matthew W.
Silvia, Paul J.
Steger, Michael F.
Venue: Journal of Research in Personality
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2009-12
Volume: 43
Issue: 6
Pages: 987-998
ISSN: 0092-6566 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.jrp.2009.04.011
PMC: PMC2770180
OpenAlex: W2107615426
Cited by: 674
References: 113
Citations by year: 2026: 73 · 2025: 68 · 2024: 67 · 2023: 65 · 2022: 72 · 2021: 49 · 2020: 44 · 2019: 49 · 2018: 29 · 2017: 38 · 2016: 31 · 2015: 26 · 2014: 17 · 2013: 17 · 2012: 13
FWCI: 11.43
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Journal of Research in Personality (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders: National Institute of Mental Health (R21MH073937)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Psychological and Educational Research Studies
Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Keywords: trait curiosity, scale development, factor structure, construct validity, item response theory, psychological flexibility, positive affect, well-being, openness to experience

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The curiosity and exploration inventory-II: Development, factor structure, and psychometrics

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