Regulation of brain microglia by female gonadal steroids
Abstract
Microglial cells are the primary mediators of the CNS immune defense system and crucial for shaping inflammatory responses. They represent a highly dynamic cell population which is constantly moving and surveying their environment. Acute brain damage causes a local attraction and activation of this immune cell type which involves neuron-to-glia and glia-to-glia interactions. The prevailing view attributes microglia a "negative" role such as defense and debris elimination. More topical studies also suggest a protective and "positive" regulatory function. Estrogens and progestins exert anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects in the CNS in acute and chronic brain diseases. Recent work revealed that microglial cells express subsets of classical and non-classical estrogen and progesterone receptors in a highly dynamic way. In this review article, we would like to stress the importance of microglia for the spreading of neural damage during hypoxia, their susceptibility to functional modulation by sex steroids, the potency of sex hormones to switch microglia from a pro-inflammatory M1 to neuroprotective M2 phenotype, and the regulation of pro- and anti-inflammatory properties including the inflammasome. We will further discuss the possibility that the neuroprotective action of sex steroids in the brain involves an early and direct modulation of local microglia cell function. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled 'Sex steroids and brain disorders'.
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Adult mice were genotyped first and only males were chosen for downstream experiments; female mice were excluded to avoid variability associated with estrous cycle-dependent hormonal changes.
“Adult mice were genotyped first and then only males were chosen for the downstream experiments. Female mice were excluded to avoid variability associated with estrous cycle-dependent hormonal changes, which are known to influence microglial behavior (Habib and Beyer, 2015).”
From Pu.1/Spi1 dosage controls the turnover and maintenance of microglia in zebrafish and mammals (2025) · cites this paper as Habib and Beyer, 2015
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Microglia in physiology and disease
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Pu.1/Spi1 dosage controls the turnover and maintenance of microglia in zebrafish and mammals
Wu, Y., Guo, W., Kuang, H., Wu, X., Trinh, T. H., Wang, Y., Zhao, S., Wen, Z., & Yu, T. (2025) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.105788 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Pu.1/Spi1 dosage controls the turnover and maintenance of microglia in zebrafish and mammals
Wu, Y., Guo, W., Kuang, H., Wu, X., Trinh, T. H., Wang, Y., Zhao, S., Wen, Z., & Yu, T. (2023) · bioRxiv (Preprint) · doi:10.1101/2023.12.14.570333 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Female mice were excluded to avoid variability associated with estrous cycle-555 dependent hormonal changes, which are known to influence microglial behavior (Habib & Beyer, Comparison of BrdU incorporation proportions in EdU + eGFP + and EdU - eGFP + microglia (n=6). n.s. = not significant, p>0.05.”
Influential
- Authors
- Habib, P., & Beyer, C.
- Affiliations
- RWTH Aachen University (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Beyer, Cordian
- Venue
- The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2015-02
- Volume
- 146
- Pages
- 3-14
- ISSN
- 0960-0760 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2086071094
- Cited by
- 118
- References
- 12
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 13 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 13 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 10 · 2014: 4
- FWCI
- 0.97
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- Locations
- The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RWTH Publications (RWTH Aachen) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration Mechanisms
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Estrogen and related hormone effects
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Neurology › Traumatic Brain Injury and Neurovascular Disturbances
- Keywords
- microglia, sex steroids, estrogen receptor, progesterone receptor, neuroinflammation, neuroprotection, M1/M2 microglial polarization, hypoxia, inflammasome
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Brain, Female, Humans, Inflammation, Ischemia, Male, Gonadal Steroid Hormones, Microglia, Neuroprotective Agents, Mice
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