Inflammasomes in the CNS
Abstract
Microglia and macrophages in the CNS contain multimolecular complexes termed inflammasomes. Inflammasomes function as intracellular sensors for infectious agents as well as for host-derived danger signals that are associated with neurological diseases, including meningitis, stroke and Alzheimer's disease. Assembly of an inflammasome activates caspase 1 and, subsequently, the proteolysis and release of the cytokines interleukin-1β and interleukin-18, as well as pyroptotic cell death. Since the discovery of inflammasomes in 2002, there has been burgeoning recognition of their complexities and functions. Here, we review the current understanding of the functions of different inflammasomes in the CNS and their roles in neurological diseases.
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Several inflammasomes have been characterized in microglia including NLRP1, NLRP3, and NLRC4.
“several inflammasomes have been characterized in microglia including NLRP1, NLRP3, and NLRC4 (Walsh et al, 2014).”
From Danger Signals and Inflammasomes: Stress-Evoked Sterile Inflammation in Mood Disorders (2017) · cites this paper as Walsh et al, 2014
The NLRP3 inflammasome has been the most studied inflammasome in the CNS.
“The NLRP3 inflammasome has been the most studied inflammasome in the CNS (Walsh et al, 2014)”
From Danger Signals and Inflammasomes: Stress-Evoked Sterile Inflammation in Mood Disorders (2017) · cites this paper as Walsh et al, 2014
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Inflammasome activation and regulation: toward a better understanding of complex mechanisms
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Inflammasome inhibition prevents α-synuclein pathology and dopaminergic neurodegeneration in mice
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“Most research has focused on microglia, but other brain cell types also have functional inflammasomes which may contribute to disease pathology (Walsh et al, 2014).”
BackgroundCytokine networks in neuroinflammation
Becher, B., Spath, S., & Goverman, J. M. (2016) · Nature reviews. Immunology · doi:10.1038/nri.2016.123 · Cited by 681 · see citing works
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“Caspase-1 regulates the maturation and release of IL-1β and IL-18 and also triggers pyroptosis pathways [194].”
InfluentialInflammatory Response in the CNS: Friend or Foe?
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“Inflammasomes generally have three main components: a cytosolic PRR (which is a member of the NLR family of protein or pyrin and the HIN domain-containing family of proteins (PYHIN)), the enzyme caspase 1, and an adaptor protein that facilitates an interaction between the two [31].”
BackgroundInfluentialMcKenzie, B., Mamik, M. K., Saito, L. B., Boghozian, R., Monaco, M. C., Major, E. O., Lu, J., Branton, W. G., & Power, C. (2018) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1722041115 · Cited by 515 · see citing works
“Human microglia, neurons, and astrocytes all display robust NRLP3 inflammasome-associated responses (12).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationThe role of interleukin-6 signaling in nervous tissue
Rothaug, M., Becker-Pauly, C., & Rose-John, S. (2016) · Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular Cell Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbamcr.2016.03.018 · Cited by 491 · see citing works
“Some cytokines play a role in signaling within the central nervous system (CNS) in the regulation of sleep, the generation and recall of long-term memory, the focus of attention as well as in neurodegenerative diseases and the integrity of the blood–brain-barrier [1,2].”
BackgroundAn xQTL map integrates the genetic architecture of the human brain's transcriptome and epigenome
Ng, B., White, C. C., Klein, H.-U., Sieberts, S. K., McCabe, C., Patrick, E., Xu, J., Yu, L., Gaiteri, C., Bennett, D. A., et al. (2017) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn.4632 · Cited by 452 · see citing works
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“like receptors and NOD-like receptors (NLRs) [9].”
BackgroundInfluentialLiu, Z., Yao, X., Jiang, W., Li, W., Zhu, S., Liao, C., Zou, L., Ding, R., & Chen, J. (2020) · Journal of Neuroinflammation · doi:10.1186/s12974-020-01751-2 · Cited by 430 · see citing works
“NLRP3 inflammasome has been investigated in several CNS diseases, such as traumatic spinal cord injury and Alzheimer’s disease [13, 47].”
InflammasomesPreprint
de Zoete, M. R., Palm, N. W., Zhu, S., & Flavell, R. A. (2014) · Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology · doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a016287 · Cited by 382 · see citing works
“Both Alzheimer’s and ALS are associated with the accumulation of protein aggregates; in Alzheimer’s, the amyloid-b protein (Ab) forms extracellular plaques that are thought to contribute to disease development, whereas mutant forms of superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) that form toxic aggregates are the best characterized…”
BackgroundInfluentialNLRP3 inflammasome-driven pathways in depression: clinical and preclinical findings
Kaufmann, F. N., Costa, A. P., Ghisleni, G., Diaz, A. P., Rodrigues, A. L. S., Peluffo, H., & Kaster, M. P. (2017) · Brain, Behavior, and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2017.03.002 · Cited by 370 · see citing works
“…in caspase-1 activation is the NLRP3 inflammasome, which contains an NLRP3 that recruits the ASC adaptor protein through its PYD domain, followed by caspase-1 binding to the ASC through its CARD domain (Lamkanfi and Dixit, 2012; Lamkanfi and Dixit, 2014; Walsh et al., 2014; Wen et al., 2013).”
Webers, A., Heneka, M. T., & Gleeson, P. A. (2019) · Immunology and Cell Biology · doi:10.1111/imcb.12301 · Cited by 371 · see citing works
“Deletion of receptors such as TLR4 reduces Ab-induced cytokine production.53 Stimulation of proinflammatory cascades can directly mediate neuronal damage by microglia via complement-mediated synapse loss,54 and indirectly via astrocytes.55 The NLRP3 inflammasome is essential for the secretion of the proinflammatory cy…”
BackgroundNLRP3 inflammasome is expressed and functional in mouse brain microglia but not in astrocytes
Gustin, A., Kirchmeyer, M., Koncina, E., Felten, P., Losciuto, S., Heurtaux, T., Tardivel, A., Heuschling, P., & Dostert, C. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0130624 · Cited by 369 · see citing works
“The most intensively studied is the NLRP3 inflammasome which is formed when NLRP3 associates with the adaptor protein ASC and procaspase-1 upon activation by different stimuli, such as pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) or endogenous danger signals [9, 10].”
BackgroundDealing with danger in the CNS: the response of the immune system to injury
Gadani, S. P., Walsh, J. T., Lukens, J. R., & Kipnis, J. (2015) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2015.05.019 · Cited by 342 · see citing works
Self-citationSystemic inflammation impairs microglial Aβ clearance through NLRP3 inflammasome
Tejera, D., Mercan, D., Sanchez‐Caro, J. M., Hanan, M., Greenberg, D., Soreq, H., Latz, E., Golenbock, D., & Heneka, M. T. (2019) · The EMBO Journal · doi:10.15252/embj.2018101064 · Cited by 351 · see citing works
“NACHT-, LRR-, and pyrin (PYD)-domain-containing protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome is the best-characterized and most widely implicated regulator of IL-1 b and IL-18 (Lu et al , 2014; Walsh et al , 2014).”
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Fiery Cell Death: Pyroptosis in the Central Nervous System.
McKenzie, B. A., Dixit, V., & Power, C. (2019) · Trends in Neurosciences · doi:10.1016/j.tins.2019.11.005 · Cited by 289 · see citing works
Self-citationAutophagy and inflammation in ischemic stroke
Mo, Y., Sun, Y., & Liu, K. (2020) · Neural Regeneration Research · doi:10.4103/1673-5374.274331 · Cited by 325 · see citing works
“Studies have reported that impaired mitochondria and extracellular ATP may be key factors in triggering inflammasome formation in acute sterile brain injury (Walsh et al., 2014).”
BackgroundKaushal, V, Dye, R., Pakavathkumar, P., Foveau, B., Flores, J., Hyman, B., Ghetti, B., Koller, B. H., & LeBlanc, A. C. (2015) · Cell Death & Differentiation · doi:10.1038/cdd.2015.16 · Cited by 297 · see citing works
“NLRP1 is activated by Bacillus anthracis in rodents but not in humans, but the human NLRP1 has been linked to Crohn’s disease and bacterial meningitis in humans (reviewed by Walsh et al.43).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe role of astrocytes in oxidative stress of central nervous system: A mixed blessing
Chen, Y., Chen, Q., Huang, J., Tang, X., Liu, C., Huang, K., Xu, J., Guo, G. F., Tong, A., & Zhou, L. (2020) · Cell Proliferation · doi:10.1111/cpr.12781 · Cited by 308 · see citing works
Focus on the Role of NLRP3 Inflammasome in Diseases
Fusco, R., Siracusa, R., Genovese, T., Cuzzocrea, S., & Paola, R. D. (2020) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms21124223 · Cited by 292 · see citing works
Interleukin-1β Induces Blood–Brain Barrier Disruption by Downregulating Sonic Hedgehog in Astrocytes
Wang, Y., Jin, S., Sonobe, Y., Cheng, Y., Horiuchi, H., Parajuli, B., Kawanokuchi, J., Mizuno, T., Takeuchi, H., & Suzumura, A. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0110024 · Cited by 286 · see citing works
“including infections, trauma, stroke, and epilepsy, as well as chronic neurologic diseases such as MS, Parkinson’s disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and Alzheimer’s disease [32]; BBB”
BackgroundPatterson, S. L. (2014) · Neuropharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2014.12.020 · Cited by 281 · see citing works
“NLRP1 & NLRP3) that form part of the inflammasome complex involved in activation of caspase-1, and the subsequent cleavage and release of IL-1β and IL-18 – another member of the IL-1 family (Rathinam et al., 2012; Walsh et al., 2014).”
BackgroundGlial and Neuroimmune Mechanisms as Critical Modulators of Drug Use and Abuse
Lacagnina, M. J., Rivera, P. D., & Bilbo, S. D. (2017) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/npp.2016.121 · Cited by 271 · see citing works
“…attention recently due to their contributions to a wide array of homeostatic and non-inflammatory processes, as well as during states of heightened inflammation and injury (Brown and Neher, 2014; Ginhoux and Jung, 2014; Prinz and Priller, 2014; Salter and Beggs, 2014; Walsh et al, 2014).”
BackgroundWard, R., Li, W., Abdul, Y., Jackson, L., Dong, G., Jamil, S., Filosa, J. A., Fagan, S. C., & Ergul, A. (2019) · Pharmacological Research · doi:10.1016/j.phrs.2019.01.035 · Cited by 274 · see citing works
Migraine and neuroinflammation: the inflammasome perspective
Kurşun, O., Yemisci, M., van den Maagdenberg, A. M., & Karatas, H. (2021) · The Journal of Headache and Pain · doi:10.1186/s10194-021-01271-1 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
“PRRs recognize danger signals, such as sterile tissue damage, metabolic alterations, and general stress in tissues and start an immune reaction to maintain tissue homeostasis.”
BackgroundInfluentialEmerging Roles for the Immune System in Traumatic Brain Injury
McKee, C. A., & Lukens, J. R. (2016) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2016.00556 · Cited by 265 · see citing works
“Since the finding that inflammasome proteins are upregulated after TBI in human patients (98), significant attention has been paid to identify the inflammasome-associated signaling events that are engaged in response to brain trauma (14, 99, 100).”
BackgroundFyn kinase regulates misfolded α-synuclein uptake and NLRP3 inflammasome activation in microglia
Panicker, N., Sarkar, S., Harischandra, D. S., Neal, M. P., Kam, T., Jin, H., Saminathan, H., Langley, M. R., Charli, A., Samidurai, M., et al. (2019) · The Journal of Experimental Medicine · doi:10.1084/jem.20182191 · Cited by 255 · see citing works
“Their assembly is triggered by a variety of stimuli and culminates in the activation of Casp-1, which then cleaves pro – IL-1 β to IL-1 β (Latz et al., 2013; Walsh et al., 2014).”
Inflammasome: Its role in traumatic brain and spinal cord injury
Mortezaee, K., Khanlarkhani, N., Beyer, C., & Zendedel, A. (2017) · Journal of Cellular Physiology · doi:10.1002/jcp.26287 · Cited by 254 · see citing works
“This state presumably assists rapid activation of the innate immune system after CNS injury (Walsh et al., 2014).”
BackgroundInnate immunity at the crossroads of healthy brain maturation and neurodevelopmental disorders
Zengeler, K. E., & Lukens, J. R. (2021) · Nature reviews. Immunology · doi:10.1038/s41577-020-00487-7 · Cited by 254 · see citing works
Neurosteroids as regulators of neuroinflammation
Yılmaz, C., Karali, K., Fodelianaki, G., Gravanis, A., Chavakis, T., Charalampopoulos, I., & Alexaki, V. I. (2019) · Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2019.100788 · Cited by 245 · see citing works
“Moreover, DAMPs also bind to NLRs, which can activate inflammasome formation in microglia and macrophages, with subsequent IL-1β and IL-18 maturation (Gadani et al., 2015; Walsh et al., 2014).”
InfluentialYe, Y., Jin, T., Zhang, X. D., Zeng, Z. R., Ye, B., Wang, J., Zhong, Y., Xiong, X., & Gu, L. (2019) · Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fncel.2019.00553 · Cited by 239 · see citing works
“Among these, NLRP3 is the most extensively studied in CNS diseases (Walsh et al., 2014).”
BackgroundXu, S., Wang, J., Zhong, J., Shao, M., Jiang, J., Song, J., Zhu, W. P., Zhang, F., Xu, H., Xu, G., et al. (2020) · Clinical and Translational Medicine · doi:10.1002/ctm2.269 · Cited by 236 · see citing works
Wang, D., Zhang, J., Jiang, W., Cao, Z., Zhao, F., Cai, T., Aschner, M., & Luo, W. (2017) · Autophagy · doi:10.1080/15548627.2017.1293766 · Cited by 236 · see citing works
Rapid inflammasome activation in microglia contributes to brain disease in HIV/AIDS
Walsh, J. G., Reinke, S. N., Mamik, M. K., McKenzie, B., Maingat, F. G., Branton, W. G., Broadhurst, D., & Power, C. (2014) · Retrovirology · doi:10.1186/1742-4690-11-35 · Cited by 228 · see citing works
“Inflammasome activation has been implicated in multiple infectious and immune diseases including those involving the brain [11-14].”
BackgroundSelf-citationTargeting Microglial α-Synuclein/TLRs/NF-kappaB/NLRP3 Inflammasome Axis in Parkinson’s Disease
Li, Y., Xia, Y., Yin, S., Wan, F., Hu, J., Kou, L., Sun, Y., Wu, J., Zhou, Q., Huang, J., et al. (2021) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2021.719807 · Cited by 230 · see citing works
Fan, Z., Pan, Y.-T., Zhang, Z.-Y., Yang, H., Yu, S.-Y., Zheng, Y., Ma, J.-H., & Wang, X.-M. (2020) · Journal of Neuroinflammation · doi:10.1186/s12974-019-1670-6 · Cited by 228 · see citing works
“within the central nervous system [29].”
A20 critically controls microglia activation and inhibits inflammasome-dependent neuroinflammation
Voet, S., Mc Guire, C., Hagemeyer, N., Martens, A., Schroeder, A., Wieghofer, P., Daems, C., Staszewski, O., Vande Walle, L., Jordao, M. J. C., et al. (2018) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-018-04376-5 · Cited by 227 · see citing works
AIM2 inflammasome surveillance of DNA damage shapes neurodevelopment
Lammert, C. R., Frost, E. L., Bellinger, C. E., Bolte, A. C., McKee, C. A., Hurt, M. E., Paysour, M. J., Ennerfelt, H. E., & Lukens, J. R. (2020) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2174-3 · Cited by 223 · see citing works
Beclin1‐driven autophagy modulates the inflammatory response of microglia via NLRP3
Houtman, J., Freitag, K., Gimber, N., Schmoranzer, J., Heppner, F. L., & Jendrach, M. (2019) · The EMBO Journal · doi:10.15252/embj.201899430 · Cited by 212 · see citing works
Ahmed, S., Kwatra, M., Panda, S. R., Murty, U. S. N., & Naidu, V. G. M. (2020) · Brain Behavior and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2020.09.017 · Cited by 218 · see citing works
Alzheimer’s disease as an inflammatory disease
Bolós, M., Perea, J. R., & Avila, J. (2017) · BioMolecular Concepts · doi:10.1515/bmc-2016-0029 · Cited by 216 · see citing works
Danger Signals and Inflammasomes: Stress-Evoked Sterile Inflammation in Mood Disorders
Fleshner, M., Frank, M., & Maier, S. F. (2017) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/npp.2016.125 · Cited by 216 · see citing works
Kuwar, R., Rolfe, A., Di, L., Xu, H., Liu, H., Jiang, Y., Zhang, S., & Sun, D. (2019) · Journal of Neuroinflammation · doi:10.1186/s12974-019-1471-y · Cited by 208 · see citing works
Liu, Z., Yao, X., Sun, B., Jiang, W., Liao, C., Dai, X., Chen, Y., Chen, J., & Ding, R. (2021) · Free Radical Biology and Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2021.03.037 · Cited by 194 · see citing works
Neuroinflammation and Parkinson’s Disease—From Neurodegeneration to Therapeutic Opportunities
Araújo, B., Caridade-Silva, R., Soares-Guedes, C., Martins‐Macedo, J., Gomes, E. D., Monteiro, S., & Teixeira, F. G. (2022) · Cells · doi:10.3390/cells11182908 · Cited by 198 · see citing works
“Functionally, when facing pathogens, endogenous signals, aggregated substances (fibrillar α-Syn in microglia [90]) or when IL1β is secreted by microglia and sensed by NLRs, the ASC component is triggered [88,91].”
BackgroundTan, C., Zhang, J., Tan, M., Chen, H., Meng, D., Jiang, T., Meng, X.-F., Li, Y., Sun, Z., Li, M., et al. (2015) · Journal of Neuroinflammation · doi:10.1186/s12974-014-0233-0 · Cited by 185 · see citing works
“In addition, inflammasome activation especially the NLRP1 is under current investigation across a broad spectrum of neurological diseases, including infections, acute sterile brain injury and chronic neurodegenerative diseases [23].”
Backgroundvon Herrmann, K. M., Salas, L. A., Martinez, E. M., Young, A. L., Howard, J. M., Feldman, M. S., Christensen, B. C., Wilkins, O. M., Lee, S., Hickey, W. F., et al. (2018) · npj Parkinson s Disease · doi:10.1038/s41531-018-0061-5 · Cited by 185 · see citing works
Feng, X., Zhao, Y., Yang, T., Song, M., Wang, C., Yao, Y., & Fan, H. (2019) · Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnmol.2019.00210 · Cited by 185 · see citing works
“The microglial marker Iba-1, reactive oxygen species (ROS), nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) and key components of the NLRP3 inflammasome and its downstream inflammatory effectors (IL-1β and IL-18) were measured.”
BackgroundInfluentialRecent Advances of the NLRP3 Inflammasome in Central Nervous System Disorders
Zhou, K., Shi, L., Wang, Y., Chen, S., & Zhang, J. (2016) · Journal of Immunology Research · doi:10.1155/2016/9238290 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Santoni, G., Cardinali, C., Morelli, M. B., Santoni, M., Nabissi, M., & Amantini, C. (2015) · Journal of Neuroinflammation · doi:10.1186/s12974-015-0239-2 · Cited by 176 · see citing works
“The activation of the inflammasomes in the CNS are involved in the generation of an innate immune inflammatory response through IL-1β and IL-18 cytokine release and in cell death through the process of pyroptosis [108].”
BackgroundRui, W., Li, S., Xiao, H., Xiao, M., & Shi, J. (2020) · The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1093/ijnp/pyaa060 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Zendedel, A., Johann, S., Mehrabi, S., Joghataei, M. T., Hassanzadeh, G., Kipp, M., & Beyer, C. (2015) · Molecular Neurobiology · doi:10.1007/s12035-015-9203-5 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
“A well-characterized outcome of TLR/NLR activation and cooperation with the inflammasome complexes is the activation of cytokine processing and in particular of IL-1β and IL-18 synthesis and secretion [39, 41].”
BackgroundXu, S., Wang, J. Q., Jiang, J., Song, J., Zhu, W. P., Zhang, F., Shao, M., Xu, H., Ma, X., & Lyu, F. (2020) · Cell Death and Disease · doi:10.1038/s41419-020-02824-z · Cited by 171 · see citing works
Zeller, M. V., Dias, D., Sebastião, A. M., & Valente, C. A. (2021) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-210268 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
“IL-1 and IL-18 bind to their respective receptors—IL-1R1 and IL-18R—on microglial cells, astrocytes, neurons, and endothelial cells, triggering NF-κB-dependent transcriptional events, which result in the generation of multiple inflammationassociated genes [90].”
BackgroundA brain in flame; do inflammasomes and pyroptosis influence stroke pathology?
Barrington, J., Lemarchand, E., & Allan, S. M. (2016) · Brain Pathology · doi:10.1111/bpa.12476 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
“Despite strong evidence implicating multiple inflammasomes in CNS disease (90), there is no conclusive evidence describing pyroptosis within the brain.”
BackgroundSun, Y., Zhao, H., Mu, D.-L., Zhang, W., Jiang, C., Wu, L., Alam, A., Wang, D., & Ma, D. (2019) · Cell Death and Disease · doi:10.1038/s41419-019-1416-5 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
Sun, R., Peng, M., Xu, P., Huang, F., Xie, Y., Li, J., Hong, Y., Guo, H., Liu, Q., & Zhu, W. (2020) · Journal of Neuroinflammation · doi:10.1186/s12974-020-01988-x · Cited by 166 · see citing works
Dai, W.-Y., Wang, X., Teng, H., Li, C., Wang, B., & Wang, J. (2018) · International Immunopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.intimp.2018.11.029 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
Sborgi, L., Ravotti, F., Dandey, V., Dick, M. S., Mazur, A., Reckel, S., Chami, M., Scherer, S. A., Huber, M., Böckmann, A., et al. (2015) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America · doi:10.1073/pnas.1507579112 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
“ment of a uniformly labeled 25 kDa protein: HET-s(1-227).”
BackgroundInflammasomes, hormesis, and antioxidants in neuroinflammation: Role of NRLP3 in Alzheimer disease
Pennisi, M., Crupi, R., Di Paola, R., Ontario, M. L., Bella, R., Calabrese, E. J., Crea, R., Cuzzocrea, S., & Calabrese, V. (2017) · Journal of Neuroscience Research · doi:10.1002/jnr.23986 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
“In addition, in response to pathogens or cellular stressors, such as pathological protein aggregates, ATP and ROS, microglia release excessive amount of proinflammatory cytokines (Walsh et al., 2014; Dilger and Johnson, 2008).”
BackgroundThe P2X7 Receptor Primes IL-1β and the NLRP3 Inflammasome in Astrocytes Exposed to Mechanical Strain
Albalawi, F., Lu, W., Beckel, J. M., Lim, J. C., McCaughey, S. A., & Mitchell, C. H. (2017) · Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fncel.2017.00227 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
“…cytokines (Rathinam et al., 2012), and it has been implicated in neural disorders associated with mechanical strain or elevated pressure (Walsh et al., 2014), including traumatic brain injury, encephalitis, and glaucoma (Kaushik et al., 2012; Liu et al., 2013; Chi et al., 2014, 2015).”
BackgroundInflammasomes and human autoimmunity: A comprehensive review
Yang, C., & Chiang, B. (2015) · Journal of Autoimmunity · doi:10.1016/j.jaut.2015.05.001 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
Innate and adaptive immune responses in the CNS
Waisman, A., Liblau, R., & Becher, B. (2015) · The Lancet Neurology · doi:10.1016/s1474-4422(15)00141-6 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Crowley, T., Cryan, J. F., Downer, E. J., & O’Leary, O. F. (2016) · Brain, Behavior, and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2016.02.001 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
“…cell death known as pyroptotic cell death, shown to be a regulator of microglial cell survival 7 (Gustin et al., 2015) and having a role in inflammatory neuronal cell death, although the precise implications of inflammasome activation in the CNS remains relatively understudied (Walsh et al., 2014).”
BackgroundHaapakoski, R., Ebmeier, K. P., Alenius, H., & Kivimäki, M. (2016) · Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2015.11.012 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
“Initiation of an inflammatory response and the formation of the inflammasome enable the activation of proinflammatory caspases, mainly caspase-1 and subsequently, increased release of pro-inflammatory cytokines (Walsh et al., 2014).”
BackgroundLi, J., Xu, P., Hong, Y., Xie, Y., Peng, M., Sun, R., Guo, H., Zhang, X., Zhu, W., Wang, J., et al. (2023) · Journal of Neuroinflammation · doi:10.1186/s12974-023-02819-5 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
“[39], and are involved in the initiation of the inflammatory response [40].”
BackgroundInflammation in Traumatic Brain Injury
Postolache, T. T., Wadhawan, A., Can, A., Lowry, C. A., Woodbury, M., Makkar, H., Hoisington, A. J., Scott, A. J., Potocki, E., Benros, M. E., et al. (2020) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-191150 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
“Multiple cells in the CNS —such as neurons, astrocytes, microglia, macrophages, and astrocytes—can contain assembled inflammasomes [115, 116], and levels of inflammasome proteins in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) generally predict a poorer outcome in TBI [117].”
Microglial inflammation and phagocytosis in Alzheimer's disease: Potential therapeutic targets
Nizami, S., Hall‐Roberts, H., Warrier, S., Cowley, S. A., & Di Daniel, E. (2019) · British Journal of Pharmacology · doi:10.1111/bph.14618 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
“Active caspase‐1 cleaves pro‐IL‐1β and pro‐IL‐18 to mature IL‐1β and IL‐18, respectively, and these cytokines are released into the extracellular space by a nonconventional secretion pathway (de Rivero Vaccari et al., 2014; Walsh et al., 2014).”
BackgroundStress induced microglial activation contributes to depression
Li, B., Yang, W., Ge, T., Wang, Y., & Cui, R. (2022) · Pharmacological Research · doi:10.1016/j.phrs.2022.106145 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
Diet in Parkinson’s Disease: Critical Role for the Microbiome
Jackson, A., Forsyth, C. B., Shaikh, M., Voigt, R. M., Engen, P. A., Ramirez, V., & Keshavarzian, A. (2019) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2019.01245 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
“Inflammasomes are present in peripheral immune cells such as macrophages, as well as in the brain and especially in microglia (206, 210, 211).”
BackgroundExploring New Inflammatory Biomarkers and Pathways during LPS-Induced M1 Polarization
Cunha, C., Gomes, C., Vaz, A. R., & Brites, D. (2016) · Mediators of Inflammation · doi:10.1155/2016/6986175 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
“Inflamma-some mediators comprise NOD-like receptor family, pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) and caspase-1 responsible for the cleavage of IL-18 and IL-1 𝛽 proforms [16].”
Neuroinflammatory responses in Alzheimer’s disease
Dansokho, C., & Heneka, M. T. (2017) · Journal of Neural Transmission · doi:10.1007/s00702-017-1831-7 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
“Activation of caspase-1 also results in a form of programmed cell death, known as pyroptosis (Venegas and Heneka 2017; Walsh et al. 2014).”
BackgroundQiu, J., Wang, M., Zhang, J., Cai, Q., Lu, D., Li, Y., Dong, Y., Zhao, T., & Chen, D. (2016) · International Immunopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.intimp.2016.09.024 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
New Insights on NLRP3 Inflammasome: Mechanisms of Activation, Inhibition, and Epigenetic Regulation
Kodi, T., Sankhe, R., Gopinathan, A., Nandakumar, K., & Kishore, A. (2024) · Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology · doi:10.1007/s11481-024-10101-5 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
“These express pattern recognition receptors (PRR) which are used to recognize PAMPs and DAMPs (Singhal et al. 2014; Walsh et al. 2014).”
BackgroundInhibition of the P2X7–PANX1 complex suppresses spreading depolarization and neuroinflammation
Chen, S., Qin, T., Seidel, J. L., Zheng, Y. Z., Eikermann, M., Ferrari, M. D., van den Maagdenberg, A. M. J. M., Moskowitz, M. A., Ayata, C., & Eikermann‐Haerter, K. (2017) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awx085 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
Fulp, J., Liu, H., Toldo, S. A., Jiang, Y., Boice, A., Guo, C., Li, X., Rolfe, A., Sun, D., Abbate, A., et al. (2018) · Journal of Medicinal Chemistry · doi:10.1021/acs.jmedchem.8b00733 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
Neuroinflammation in neurological disorders: pharmacotherapeutic targets from bench to bedside
Mishra, A., Bandopadhyay, R., Singh, P. K., Mishra, P. S., Sharma, N., & Khurana, N. (2021) · Metabolic Brain Disease · doi:10.1007/s11011-021-00806-4 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
Crosstalk Between the Oxidative Stress and Glia Cells After Stroke: From Mechanism to Therapies
Zhu, G., Wang, X., Chen, L., Lenahan, C., Fu, Z., Fang, Y., & Yu, W. (2022) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.852416 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Meng, X., Tan, L., Tan, M., Jiang, T., Tan, C., Li, M., Wang, H.-F., & Yu, J. (2014) · Journal of Neuroinflammation · doi:10.1186/s12974-014-0212-5 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
“It should be noted that, the high concentrations of extracellular ATP and K ions, and the generation of ROS are the most important factors for activating NLRP3 [37].”
Inflammasomes as therapeutic targets for A lzheimer's disease
White, C., Lawrence, C. B., Brough, D., & Rivers‐Auty, J. (2016) · Brain Pathology · doi:10.1111/bpa.12478 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
“Rodents express three paralogous NLRP1 genes where as humans only express one, and there are structural differences in the death domains (163).”
BackgroundInflammasome and α-synuclein in Parkinson's disease: A cross-sectional study
Chatterjee, K., Roy, A., Banerjee, R., Choudhury, S., Mondal, B., Halder, S., Basu, P., Shubham, S., Dey, S., & Kumar, H. (2019) · Journal of Neuroimmunology · doi:10.1016/j.jneuroim.2019.577089 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Activated protein C, protease activated receptor 1, and neuroprotection
Griffin, J. H., Zloković, B. V., & Mosnier, L. O. (2018) · Blood · doi:10.1182/blood-2018-02-769026 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
Yap, J. K. Y., Pickard, B. S., Chan, E. W. L., & Gan, S. Y. (2019) · Molecular Neurobiology · doi:10.1007/s12035-019-1638-7 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
“Several types of inflammasome have been identified within the central nervous system (CNS), of which the best characterized are the absent inmelanoma 2 (AIM2), NLR-family pyrin domain-containing 1 (NLRP1), NLRP3 and NLR-family CARD-containing 4 (NLRC4) inflammasomes [9].”
BackgroundAge-related cerebral small vessel disease and inflammaging
Li, T., Huang, Y., Cai, W., Chen, X., Men, X., Lü, T., Wu, A., & Lu, Z. (2020) · Cell Death and Disease · doi:10.1038/s41419-020-03137-x · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Inflammasomes and autoimmune and rheumatic diseases: A comprehensive review
Shin, J. I., Lee, K. H., Joo, Y. H., Lee, J. M., Jeon, J., Jung, H. J., Shin, M., Cho, S., Kim, T.-H., Park, S., et al. (2019) · Journal of Autoimmunity · doi:10.1016/j.jaut.2019.06.010 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Chang, Y., Zhu, J., Wang, D., Li, H., He, Y., Liu, K., Wang, X., Peng, Y., Pan, S., & Huang, K. (2020) · Journal of Neuroinflammation · doi:10.1186/s12974-020-01879-1 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Lammerding, L., Slowik, A., Johann, S., Beyer, C., & Zendedel, A. (2015) · Neuroendocrinology · doi:10.1159/000439435 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Neuroinflammatory changes negatively impact on LTP: A focus on IL-1β
Lynch, M. A. (2015) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2014.08.040 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
“…1, is triggered by activation of members of the mammalian nucleotide binding domain, leucine-rich repeat (LRR)-containing receptor (NLR) family and results in activation of caspase 1 with the subsequent processing and release of IL-1β and IL-18 (Tschopp et al., 2003; Walsh et al., 2014).”
InfluentialEstrogen Attenuates Local Inflammasome Expression and Activation after Spinal Cord Injury
Zendedel, A., Mönnink, F., Hassanzadeh, G., Zaminy, A., Ansar, M. M., Habib, P., Slowik, A., Kipp, M., & Beyer, C. (2017) · Molecular Neurobiology · doi:10.1007/s12035-017-0400-2 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
“How the inflammasomes are activated is still debated, but in the case of NLRP3, which is the most studied caspase-1 activator [47], several signals related to cell damage and stress such as generation of extracellular ATP, production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and activators that form crystalline/particulate li…”
NADPH Oxidase 2 Regulates NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation in the Brain after Traumatic Brain Injury
Ma, M. W., Wang, J., Dhandapani, K. M., & Brann, D. W. (2017) · Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity · doi:10.1155/2017/6057609 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Modulation of microglia polarization dynamics during diabetic retinopathy in db / db mice
Arroba, A. I., Alcalde‐Estévez, E., García‐Ramírez, M., Cazzoni, D., de la Villa, P., Sánchez‐Fernández, E. M., Mellet, C. O., Fernández, J. M. G., Hernández, C., Simó, R., et al. (2016) · Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular Basis of Disease · doi:10.1016/j.bbadis.2016.05.024 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
High resolution dissection of reactive glial nets in Alzheimer’s disease
Bouvier, D. S., Jones, E. V., Quesseveur, G., Davoli, M. A., A. Ferreira, T., Quirion, R., Mechawar, N., & Murai, K. K. (2016) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep24544 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Microglial CMPK2 promotes neuroinflammation and brain injury after ischemic stroke
Guan, X., Zhu, S., Song, J.-Q., Liu, K., Liu, M., Xie, L., Wang, Y., Wu, J. S., Xu, X., & Pang, T. (2024) · Cell Reports Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.xcrm.2024.101522 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
- Authors
- Walsh, J. G., Muruve, D. A., & Power, C.
- Affiliations
- University of Alberta (CA)
- University of Calgary (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Power, Christopher
- Venue
- Nature Reviews Neuroscience
- Published
- 2014-01-08
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 84-97
- ISSN
- 1471-003X (ISSN-L)
- 1471-0048
- OpenAlex
- W1981649246
- Cited by
- 637
- References
- 149
- Citations by year
- 2026: 25 · 2025: 18 · 2024: 46 · 2023: 49 · 2022: 77 · 2021: 67 · 2020: 76 · 2019: 58 · 2018: 51 · 2017: 47 · 2016: 57 · 2015: 43 · 2014: 22
- FWCI
- 5.34
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Nature reviews. Neuroscience (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Inflammasome and immune disorders
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration Mechanisms
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › Immune Response and Inflammation
- Keywords
- inflammasome, central nervous system, caspase-1, IL-1β, IL-18, pyroptosis, microglia, macrophages, neurological disorders, meningitis, stroke, Alzheimer's disease, innate immunity, damage-associated molecular patterns
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Central Nervous System, Humans, Macrophages, Nervous System Diseases, Neuroglia, Inflammasomes
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