Microglia in physiology and disease
Open accessAbstract
As the immune-competent cells of the brain, microglia play an increasingly important role in maintaining normal brain function. They invade the brain early in development, transform into a highly ramified phenotype, and constantly screen their environment. Microglia are activated by any type of pathologic event or change in brain homeostasis. This activation process is highly diverse and depends on the context and type of the stressor or pathology. Microglia can strongly influence the pathologic outcome or response to a stressor due to the release of a plethora of substances, including cytokines, chemokines, and growth factors. They are the professional phagocytes of the brain and help orchestrate the immunological response by interacting with infiltrating immune cells. We describe here the diversity of microglia phenotypes and their responses in health, aging, and disease. We also review the current literature about the impact of lifestyle on microglia responses and discuss treatment options that modulate microglial phenotypes.
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Aged microglia become more responsive to pro-inflammatory stimuli, a phenomenon called microglial priming.
“Aged microglia also become more responsive to pro-inflammatory stimuli (“microglial priming”) (reviewed in [331]).”
From Revisiting the Pathogenesis of X-Linked Adrenoleukodystrophy (2025) · cites this paper as [331]
M2 microglia play a fundamental role in inflammation resolution by secreting anti-inflammatory cytokines.
“In contrast, M2 microglia play fundamental role in inflammation resolution by secreting anti-inflammatory cytokines (56).”
From Melatonin Attenuates LPS-Induced Acute Depressive-Like Behaviors and Microglial NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation Through the SIRT1/Nrf2 Pathway (2019) · cites this paper as [56]
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- Authors
- Wolf, S. A., Boddeke, H. W. G. M., & Kettenmann, H.
- Affiliations
- Max Delbrück Center (DE)
- University Medical Center Groningen (NL)
- Corresponding author
- Kettenmann, Helmut
- Venue
- Annual Review of Physiology
- Publisher
- Annual Reviews
- Published
- 2017-02-10
- Volume
- 79
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 619-643
- ISSN
- 0066-4278 (ISSN-L)
- 1545-1585
- OpenAlex
- W2336534940
- Cited by
- 1,426
- References
- 137
- Citations by year
- 2026: 94 · 2025: 151 · 2024: 167 · 2023: 185 · 2022: 196 · 2021: 216 · 2020: 172 · 2019: 116 · 2018: 75 · 2017: 36 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 6.63
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- other-oa
- Locations
- Annual Review of Physiology (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- MDC Repository (Max-Delbrueck-Center for Molecular Medicine) (submittedVersion)
- University of Groningen research database (University of Groningen / Centre for Information Technology) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration Mechanisms
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neurological Disease Mechanisms and Treatments
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Inflammasome and immune disorders
- Keywords
- microglia, microglial activation, microglial phenotype, brain homeostasis, neuroinflammation, cytokines, chemokines, growth factors, phagocytosis, infiltrating immune cells, aging, lifestyle, brain development
- MeSH terms
- Aging, Animals, Brain, Humans, Phagocytes, Microglia
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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