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Reading normal and degraded words: Contribution of the dorsal and ventral visual pathways.
Abstract
Fast, parallel word recognition, in expert readers, relies on sectors of the left ventral occipito-temporal pathway collectively known as the visual word form area. This expertise is thought to arise from perceptual learning mechanisms that extract informative features from the input strings. The perceptual expertise hypothesis leads to two predictions: (1) parallel word recognition, based on the ventral visual system, should be limited to words displayed in a familiar format (foveal horizontal words with normally spaced letters); (2) words displayed in formats outside this field of expertise should be read serially, under supervision of dorsal parietal attention systems. We presented adult readers with words that were progressively degraded in three different ways (word rotation, letter spacing, and displacement to the visual periphery). Behaviorally, we identified degradation thresholds above which reading difficulty increased non-linearly, with the concomitant emergence of a word length effect on reading latencies reflecting serial reading strategies. fMRI activations were correlated with reading difficulty in bilateral occipito-temporal and parietal regions, reflecting the strategies required to identify degraded words. A core region of the intraparietal cortex was engaged in all modes of degradation. Furthermore, in the ventral pathway, word degradation led to an amplification of activation in the posterior visual word form area, at a level thought to encode single letters. We also found an effect of word length restricted to highly degraded words in bilateral occipitoparietal regions. Those results clarify when and how the ventral parallel visual word form system needs to be supplemented by the deployment of dorsal serial reading strategies.
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“In bilateral PPC (Cohen et al., 2008; Vinckier et al., 2006), we found increasing responses to word visibility (Supplementary Figure 4).”
From The Development of Cortical Sensitivity to Visual Word Forms (2011) · cites this paper as Cohen et al., 2008
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BackgroundInfluentialSensory modality and spoken language shape reading network in blind readers of Braille
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Working-memory endophenotype and dyslexia-associated genetic variant predict dyslexia phenotype
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BackgroundDeciphering CAPTCHAs: What a Turing Test Reveals about Human Cognition
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ResultDistinct patterns of brain function in children with isolated spelling impairment: New insights
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Many ways to read your vowels—Neural processing of diacritics and vowel letters in Hebrew
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“These results are consistent with previous studies showing in occipital and parietal regions a specific effect of word length for pseudo words in German (Schurz et al., 2010) and for visually degraded words in French (Cohen et al., 2008).”
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Self-citationThe time course of processing handwritten words: An ERP investigation
Vergara‐Martínez, M., Gutiérrez, E., Perea, M., Gil‐Lopez, C., & Carreiras, M. (2021) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2021.107924 · Cited by 25
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“Previous studies [Cohen et al., 2008; Pammer et al., 2006] suggested that the ventral visual word form system (which carries out the holistic automatic reading procedures used for processing an intact character or word) needs to be supplemented by the deployment of dorsal attention reading system…”
Word learning and the cerebral hemispheres: from serial to parallel processing of written words
Ellis, A. W., Ferreira, R. A., Cathles-Hagan, P., Holt, K. E., JARVIS, L. M., & Barca, L. (2009) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2009.0187 · Cited by 25
“Such a finding could imply that parallelized processing of familiar words in the RVF depends on their being presented in formats that the left hemisphere is accustomed to processing (Ellis 2004; Cohen et al. 2008).”
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“…(Bub & Lewine, 1988; Ellis, Young, & Anderson, 1988; Lavidor & Bailey, 2005; Lavidor & Ellis, 2002; Young & Ellis, 1985), displaying stimulus vertically (Bub & Lewine, 1988; Cohen, Dehaene, Vinckier, Jobert, & Montavont, 2008) or increasing letter spacing of the word stimulus (Cohen et al., 2008).”
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Holistic word processing is correlated with efficiency in visual word recognition
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“Given these differences, it is essential to not treat picture and word studies as functionally equivalent for the purpose of elucidating the neurobiology of language processing (see Price and Devlin (2003) and Cohen et al. (2008) for additional discussion of this issue).”
BackgroundInfluentialBasic processes in reading: The effect of interletter spacing.
Risko, E. F., Lanthier, S. N., & Besner, D. (2011) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0024332 · Cited by 22
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“Thus far, much work has been done on the functional framework of reading (Pugh et al., 2000, 2001; Mechelli et al., 2005; Borowsky et al., 2006, 2007; Cohen et al., 2008; Binder et al., 2009; Levy et al., 2009; Price, 2010).”
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“005), and the bilateral dorsal intraparietal region known to be involved in the letter-byletter “serial reading mode” (Cohen et al., 2008) (BA 19) (peak activations LH: TC 25, 77, 42, t44.”
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Butcher, P. R., Bouma, A., Stremmelaar, E. F., Bos, A. F., Smithson, M. J., & Braeckel, K. N. J. A. V. (2012) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/a0029298 · Cited by 20
“The processing of novel combinations of familiar visual stimuli, called on by matching patterns, places high demands on spatial attention, which is mediated by the posterior parietal cortex (Cohen et al., 2008).”
BackgroundEl Rol de la Atención y Percepción Viso-Espacial en el Desempeño Lector en la Mediana Infancia
Ison, M. S., & Korzeniowski, C. (2015) · Psykhe (Santiago) · doi:10.7764/psykhe.25.1.761 · Cited by 20
Implied reading direction and prioritization of letter encoding.
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Siéroff, É. (2015) · Annals of Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.rehab.2015.07.004 · Cited by 19
“, with eccentricity of 28) rather than in the fovea [38], so the involvement of spatial attention may be larger for parafoveal than foveal words.”
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“Most studies have observed equal (even stronger) activity in the left mid-fusiform cortex in pseudoword reading compared to real word reading (Bolger et al., 2005; Cohen et al., 2002, 2008; Liu et al., 2008; Vigneau et al., 2005).”
Understanding the biological basis of dyslexia at a neural systems level
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“This reading network includes a dorsal stream, which links orthographic information to sublexical phonological representations, and a ventral stream, which recognizes whole words and their meanings (Pugh et al., 2001; Cohen et al., 2008; Price, 2012).”
BackgroundNeural bases of reading fluency: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Lee, M. M., & Stoodley, C. J. (2024) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2024.108947 · Cited by 23
Reading tilted: Does the use of tablets impact performance? An oculometric study
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“The performance remained stable, according to classical eye tracking data, which contradicts the results described in previous studies on rotated word or letter displays (Cohen et al., 2008; Hock & Tromley, 1978).”
BackgroundResultLocalizing the Frequency×Regularity word reading interaction in the cerebral cortex
Cummine, J., Sarty, G. E., & Borowsky, R. (2010) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.04.006 · Cited by 17
Reading impairment in schizophrenia: Dysconnectivity within the visual system
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“As shown previously (Cohen et al., 2008), word degradation impacted both ventral and dorsal visual pathways.”
Self-citationQuinn, C., Taylor, J. S. H., & Davis, M. H. (2016) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2016.09.025 · Cited by 17
“While fronto-parietal activation has been implicated in many studies of word reading, the relative contributions of dorsal and ventral regions across different stages of learning to read has remained relatively unclear, with several studies citing the need to further investigate the relationship between parietal and v…”
Wider Letter-Spacing Facilitates Word Processing but Impairs Reading Rates of Fast Readers
Korinth, S. P., Gerstenberger, K., & Fiebach, C. J. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00444 · Cited by 17
Many neighbors are not silent. fMRI evidence for global lexical activity in visual word recognition
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“A great deal of research showed that the ventral occipitotemporal region is involved in the identification of letters and words (e.g., Cohen et al., 2000b, 2004, 2008; Vinckier et al., 2007).”
BackgroundDecoding letter position in word reading
Ossmy, O., Ben‐Shachar, M., & Mukamel, R. (2014) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2014.07.002 · Cited by 17
“Further, the current results imply that parietal regions which were found to be engaged in spatial aspects of word recognition (Cohen et al., 2008; Vinckier et al., 2006) and in visual feature binding (Shafritz et al., 2002; Xu, 2007) are also recruited in binding letters to relative position when…”
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Letter and symbol identification: No evidence for letter-specific crowding mechanisms
Castet, É., Descamps, M., Denis-Noël, A., & Colé, P. (2017) · Journal of Vision · doi:10.1167/17.11.2 · Cited by 17
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Accelerating reading via local priming
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“More recently, a print-to-speech network has been described that includes information about the interconnections of brain regions involved in reading and speech production (Borowsky et al. 2006; Cohen et al. 2008; Cummine et al. 2012, 2015, 2016; Joubert et al. 2004; Pugh et al. 2000; Saur et al. 2008; Steinbrink et a…”
BackgroundExamining the neural and cognitive processes that underlie reading through naming speed tasks
Dahhan, N. Z. A., Kirby, J. R., Chen, Y., Brien, D. C., & Munoz, D. P. (2020) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/ejn.14673 · Cited by 14
Les bases neurales de l’apprentissage de la lecture
Kolinsky, R., Morais, J., Cohen, L., & Dehaene, S. (2018) · Langue française · doi:10.3917/lf.199.0017 · Cited by 33
Self-citationThe recognition potential and rotated Chinese characters
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Global and Local Visual Processing in Rate/Accuracy Subtypes of Dyslexia
Goldstein‐Marcusohn, Y., Goldfarb, L., & Shany, M. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00828 · Cited by 16
Reading Braille by Touch Recruits Posterior Parietal Cortex
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“…sighted visual readers engaged this system or in visual tasks by making the words harder to read, by presenting one letter at a time, or by asking participants to spell words (Carreiras, Quiñones, Hernández-Cabrera, & Duñabeitia, 2015; Purcell et al., 2011; Rapp & Dufor, 2011; Cohen et al., 2008).”
Cracking the neural code for word recognition in convolutional neural networks
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Self-citationNo-Reference Stereoimage Quality Assessment for Multimedia Analysis Towards Internet-of-Things
Yang, J., Jiang, B., Song, H. H., Yang, X., Lu, W. B., & Liu, H. (2018) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2018.2791560 · Cited by 15
“In fact, the human visual system has two important visual neural pathways that control the behavior of people: ventral pathway and dorsal pathway [24], [25].”
BackgroundDoes letter rotation decrease transposed letter priming effects?
Yang, H., & Lupker, S. J. (2019) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0000697 · Cited by 15
“Such results caused Cohen et al. to propose their perceptual expertise hypothesis which suggests a parallel word recognition process for letters in words presented in a familiar format and a (qualitatively different) serial reading strategy for words presented in an unfamiliar format (i.e., a format which is outside t…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialFunctional reorganization of the reading network in the course of foreign language acquisition
Kuper, C., Matuszewski, J., Banaszkiewicz, A., Bola, Ł., Szczepanik, M., Draps, M., Kordos, P., Marcin Szwed, A., Jednoróg, K., & Marchewka, A. (2020) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.117544 · Cited by 15
“In each task, a reading condition (experimental) is contrasted against a visual search condition (control) revealing reading-related processes, such as grapheme identification and grapheme-phoneme mapping (Coltheart et al., 2001).”
Mirror-image discrimination in the literate brain: a causal role for the left occpitotemporal cortex
Nakamura, K., Makuuchi, M., & Nakajima, Y. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00478 · Cited by 15
“The behavioral paradigm and TMS procedure were the same as those in the main experiment.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialAttention and the identification of parafoveal words in school-age children and adults
Siéroff, É., & Riva, M. (2011) · Journal of Neurolinguistics · doi:10.1016/j.jneuroling.2011.01.003 · Cited by 14
The relationship of global form and motion detection to reading fluency.
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“This would be supported by evidence provided by Cohen et al. (2008) showing decreases in reading performance with distortions (e.g., word rotations or addition of extra space between letters) of the word as a viable object stimulus.”
Probabilistic orthographic cues to grammatical category in the brain
Arciuli, J., McMahon, K. L., & de Zubicaray, G. I. (2012) · Brain and Language · doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2012.09.009 · Cited by 15
The role of visual crowding in eye movements during reading: Effects of text spacing
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“…al., 2016), was shown to damage the perceptual integrity of words and hinder the reader’s parallel letter-recognition processing, which together outweighed benefits of reduced crowding and resulted in prolonged word recognition time (Cohen et al., 2008; Risko et al., 2011; Vinckier et al., 2011).”
Failure to learn a new spatial format in children with developmental dyslexia
Pontillo, M., Luca, M. D., Ellis, A. W., Marinelli, C. V., Donatella Spinelli, A., & Zoccolotti, P. (2014) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep04869 · Cited by 14
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“Reading requires the integration of two distinct neurocognitive systems: a visual system recognizes a visual word from within a crowded group of letters, and a phonological language system rapidly recognizes and produces spoken words from a group of phonemes [40].”
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“Keywords: developmental dyslexia, lexical decision, Reicher–Wheeler paradigm, pronounceability, global factor, letter string”
BackgroundThe impact of inverted text on visual word processing: An fMRI study
Sussman, B. L., Reddigari, S., & Newman, S. D. (2018) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2018.02.004 · Cited by 15
“For example, there is evidence that rotating words more than 60 degrees disrupts holistic word processing, forcing a serial processing strategy (Cohen et al., 2008; Koriat & Norman, 1985).”
Repetition of letter strings leads to activation of and connectivity with word-related regions
Fisher, J. E., Cortes, C. R., Griego, J. A., & Tagamets, M. A. (2011) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.09.047 · Cited by 15
“The dorsal system activates a parietal attention network (Cohen et al., 2008), including the angular gyrus and supramarginal gyrus in the inferior parietal lobule and the posterior part of the superior temporal gyrus, i.”
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On the Legibility of Mirror-Reflected and Rotated Text
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Neural networks mediating sentence reading in the deaf
Hirshorn, E. A., Dye, M., Hauser, P. C., Supalla, T. R., & Bavelier, D. (2014) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00394 · Cited by 16
“From there, the literature describes two left-lateralized networks that mediate literacy (Fiebach et al., 2002; Jobard et al., 2003; Turkeltaub et al., 2003; Borowsky et al., 2006; Cohen et al., 2008; Dehaene, 2009).”
Increased Stroop interference with better second-language reading skill
Braet, W., Noppe, N., Wagemans, J. P., & de Beeck, H. O. (2010) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470218.2010.513735 · Cited by 13
Overwalle, F. V., Heleven, E., Ma, N., & Mariën, P. (2016) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.08.046 · Cited by 13
Taran, N., Farah, R., Gashri, C., Gitman, E., Rosch, K. S., Schlaggar, B. L., & Horowitz‐Kraus, T. (2023) · Network Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/netn_a_00335 · Cited by 13
“…2013; Zhao, Wang, Huang, & Liang, 2022) makes it a major candidate to contribute to the reading process, and several studies have indeed highlighted the role of (especially posterior) DAN areas in reading (Cohen, Dehaene, Vinckier, Jobert, & Montavont, 2008; Qian, Bi, Wang, Zhang, & Bi, 2016).”
BackgroundRollans, C., & Cummine, J. (2018) · Journal of Neurolinguistics · doi:10.1016/j.jneuroling.2017.12.009 · Cited by 12
Influence of spatial perception abilities on reading in school-age children
Saj̈, A., & Barisnikov, K. (2015) · Cogent Psychology · doi:10.1080/23311908.2015.1049736 · Cited by 12
Siéroff, É., & Haehnel, N. B. (2014) · Laterality Asymmetries of Body Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1080/1357650x.2014.988220 · Cited by 12
Training-induced neural plasticity in visual-word decoding and the role of syllables
Takashima, A., Wagensveld, B., van Turennout, M., Zwitserlood, P., Peter Hagoort, A., & Verhoeven, L. T. W. (2014) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2014.06.017 · Cited by 14
“, 2004), and for degraded word stimuli when serial reading strategies are deployed (Cohen et al., 2008).”
BackgroundAlternating-color words influence Chinese sentence reading: Evidence from neural connectivity
Zhou, W., Liu, Y., Su, M., Yan, M., & Hua Shu, A. (2019) · Brain and Language · doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2019.104663 · Cited by 12
Laszlo, S., & Sacchi, E. (2015) · Brain and Language · doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2015.03.009 · Cited by 12
Farah, R., Dworetsky, A., Coalson, R. S., Petersen, S. E., Schlaggar, B. L., Rosch, K. S., & Horowitz‐Kraus, T. (2024) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhae166 · Cited by 16
Manual dexterity predicts phonological decoding speed in typical reading adults
Franceschini, S., Bertoni, S., & Facoetti, A. (2021) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-020-01464-4 · Cited by 9
Bola, Ł., Radziun, D., Siuda-Krzywicka, K., Sowa, J. E., Paplińska, M., Sumera, E., & Marcin Szwed, A. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00514 · Cited by 11
“Such slow, serial reading is reminiscent of reading atypical stimuli – for example rotated words (Cohen et al., 2008).”
BackgroundThe Distinct Roles of Dorsal and Ventral Visual Systems in Naming of Chinese Characters
Zhou, W., Xia, Z., Georgiou, G. K., & Shu, H. (2018) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2018.08.024 · Cited by 11
Whole-object effects in visual word processing: Parallels with and differences from face recognition
Feizabadi, M., Albonico, A., Starrfelt, R., & Barton, J. J. S. (2021) · Cognitive Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/02643294.2021.1974369 · Cited by 10
Letter rotations: through the magnifying glass and What evidence found there
Fernández‐López, M., Gómez, P., & Perea, M. (2022) · Language Cognition and Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/23273798.2022.2093390 · Cited by 11
“2006; see also Cohen et al., 2008). The SERIOL model (Whitney, 2001) is a theoretical framework that describes how word recognition is achieved via a series of processing layers. Specifically, the process of abstract letter identification depends on the activation of the nodes representing each letter, and this activa…”
BackgroundRomdhane, M. N., Gombert, J.-É., & Belajouza, M. (2003) · Presses universitaires de Rennes eBooks · doi:10.4000/books.pur.48403 · Cited by 13
Cognitive dimensions of learning in children with problems in attention, learning and memoryPreprint
Holmes, J., Guy, J., Bryant, A., Kievit, R., the CALM Team, & Gathercole, S. E. (2020) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/dx6aj · Cited by 11
How resilient is reading to letter rotations? A parafoveal preview investigation.
Fernández‐López, M., Mirault, J., Jonathan Grainger, B., & Perea, M. (2021) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0000999 · Cited by 10
“For instance, Cohen et al. (2008) found no differences in response times to words presented with 0° and 22.5° rotation angles, whereas there was a dramatic slow-down at angles of 45° and larger.”
BackgroundInfluentialNeural Effects of Gender and Age Interact in Reading
Graves, W. W., Coulanges, L., Levinson, H., Boukrina, O. V., & Conant, L. L. (2019) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2019.01115 · Cited by 10
Gould, L. A., Cummine, J., & Borowsky, R. (2012) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2012.00287 · Cited by 10
“These routes have been mapped onto the dorsal and ventral visual processing streams, respectively (Herbster et al., 1997; Jobard et al., 2003; Price and Devlin, 2003; Indefrey and Levelt, 2004; Joubert et al., 2004; Borowsky et al., 2006, 2007, 2012; Hickok and Poeppel, 2007; Cohen et al., 2008; Cummine et al., 2010,…”
BackgroundHandwritten Arabic Documents Segmentation into Text Lines using Seam Carving
Souhar, A., & Daldali, M. (2018) · International Journal of Interactive Multimedia and Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.9781/ijimai.2018.06.002 · Cited by 10
A brain-region-based meta-analysis method utilizing the Apriori algorithm
Niu, Z., Nie, Y., Zhou, Q., Zhu, L., & Wei, J. (2016) · BMC Neuroscience · doi:10.1186/s12868-016-0257-8 · Cited by 9
“[12] 12 Word degradation > baseline 16”
Danna, J., Massendari, D., Furnari, B., & Ducrot, S. (2018) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2018.06.003 · Cited by 9
Ekstrand, C., Neudorf, J., Kress, S., & Borowsky, R. (2019) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2019.08.006 · Cited by 11
Neural correlates of confusability in recognition of morphologically complex Korean words
Kim, J., Jung, J., & Nam, K. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0249111 · Cited by 8
Civera, T., Perea, M., Leone‐Fernandez, B., & Vergara‐Martínez, M. (2024) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-024-01221-9 · Cited by 9
“Cohen et al. (2008) found that word reading difficulty increased nonlinearly for inter-letter spacing starting from a spacing of 2.25 blank space.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialThe relationship between naming reaction time and functional MRI parameters in Broca's area
Cummine, J., Borowsky, R., Vakorin, V. A., Bird, J., & Sarty, G. E. (2008) · Magnetic Resonance Imaging · doi:10.1016/j.mri.2008.01.032 · Cited by 8
“Manipulating the types of stimuli that participants are given in a word identification task can serve to focus on a specific type of linguistic representation, such as phonology [9,10,18–23].”
BackgroundColagè, I. (2016) · Physics of Life Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.plrev.2016.01.013 · Cited by 8
Metadata
- Authors
- Cohen, L., Dehaene, S., Vinckier, F., Jobert, A., & Montavont, A.
- Affiliations
- Inserm (FR)
- Corresponding author
- Cohen, Laurent
- Venue
- NeuroImage
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2008-03-01
- Volume
- 40
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 353-366
- ISSN
- 1053-8119 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2034546135
- Cited by
- 303
- References
- 79
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 16 · 2020: 18 · 2019: 19 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 17 · 2016: 16 · 2015: 27 · 2014: 21 · 2013: 23 · 2012: 30
- FWCI
- 17.26
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- NeuroImage (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Reading and Literacy Development
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neurobiology of Language and Bilingualism
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Visual perception and processing mechanisms
- Keywords
- visual word recognition, visual word form area, dorsal visual pathway, ventral stream, perceptual expertise, intraparietal cortex, letter spacing, visual periphery, word length effect, reading latency
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Attention, Female, Humans, Image Processing, Computer-Assisted, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Male, Nerve Net, Occipital Lobe, Orientation, Parietal Lobe, Photic Stimulation, Reading, Temporal Lobe, Visual Pathways, Recognition, Psychology
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