Degree of bilingualism predicts age of diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease in low-education but not in highly educated Hispanics
Open accessAbstract
The current study investigated the relationship between bilingual language proficiency and onset of probable Alzheimer's disease (AD) in 44 Spanish-English bilinguals at the UCSD Alzheimer's Disease Research Center. Degree of bilingualism along a continuum was measured using Boston Naming Test (BNT) scores in each language. Higher degrees of bilingualism were associated with increasingly later age-of-diagnosis (and age of onset of symptoms), but this effect was driven by participants with low education level (a significant interaction between years of education and bilingualism) most of whom (73%) were also Spanish-dominant. Additionally, only objective measures (i.e., BNT scores), not self-reported degree of bilingualism, predicted age-of-diagnosis even though objective and self-reported measures were significantly correlated. These findings establish a specific connection between knowledge of two languages and delay of AD onset, and demonstrate that bilingual effects can be obscured by interactions between education and bilingualism, and by failure to obtain objective measures of bilingualism. More generally, these data support analogies between the effects of bilingualism and "cognitive reserve" and suggest an upper limit on the extent to which reserve can function to delay dementia.
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Gallo, F., Myachykov, A., Shtyrov, Y., & Abutalebi, J. (2020) · Journal of Cultural Cognitive Science · doi:10.1007/s41809-020-00058-1 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Impact of Mild Behavioral Impairment on Longitudinal Changes in Cognition
Rouse, H. J., Ismail, Z., Andel, R., Molinari, V., Schinka, J. A., & Small, B. J. (2023) · The Journals of Gerontology Series A · doi:10.1093/gerona/glad098 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Bilingualism as a strategy to delay the onset of Alzheimer’s disease
Klímová, B., Vališ, M., & Kuča, K. (2017) · Clinical Interventions in Aging · doi:10.2147/cia.s145397 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Gasquoine, P. G. (2016) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000294 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Inhibitory control as a significant predictor of academic performance in Chinese high schoolers
Privitera, A. J., Zhou, Y., & Xie, X. (2022) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2022.2098941 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“Despite criticism (Zell & Krizan, 2014), self-report measures of language proficiency have been found to correlate with objective measures (Gollan et al., 2011; Jia et al., 2002; Li et al., 2020; Marian et al., 2007; Schrauf, 2009), with comparable results reported when either measure is used…”
ResultPadilla, C., Mendez, M. F., Jimenez, E. E., & Teng, E. (2016) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/s12877-016-0368-1 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“Our findings add to the growing literature examining the effects of bilingualism on cognitive aging and dementia among Spanish-speaking individuals in the United States [23, 26, 38].”
ResultInfluentialThe unique role of bilingualism among cognitive reserve-enhancing factors
Gallo, F., & Abutalebi, J. (2023) · Bilingualism Language and Cognition · doi:10.1017/s1366728923000317 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Which neuropsychological tests predict progression to Alzheimer’s disease in Hispanics?
Weissberger, G. H., Salmon, D. P., Bondi, M. W., & Gollan, T. H. (2013) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/a0032399 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Fuller‐Thomson, E. (2015) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2015.01.024 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Long, M. R., Vega‐Mendoza, M., Rohde, H., Sorace, A., & Bak, T. H. (2019) · Bilingualism Language and Cognition · doi:10.1017/s1366728919000749 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“This allowed us to control for education, a factor which has been studied extensively in adult bilingualism (e.g. Gollan et al., 2011; Alladi et al., 2013), in order to examine understudied factors influencing language-related cognitive change.”
BackgroundAssessing language background and experiences among heritage bilinguals
Macbeth, A., Atagi, N., Montag, J. L., Bruni, M. R., & Chiarello, C. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.993669 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Dahm, R., & Angelis, G. D. (2017) · International Journal of Multilingualism · doi:10.1080/14790718.2017.1359275 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Home language and societal language skills in second-generation bilingual adults
Giguere, D., & Hoff, E. (2020) · International Journal of Bilingualism · doi:10.1177/1367006920932221 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“A degree of bilingualism score was calculated for each bilingual adult following the procedure used in Gollan et al. (2011).”
MethodBilingualism: A Global Public Health Strategy for Healthy Cognitive Aging
Mendis, S. B., Raymont, V., & Tabet, N. (2021) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2021.628368 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“(58) explored bilingual objectively measures of linguistic proficiency using the Boston Naming Task.”
BackgroundMethodSmirnov, D. S., Stasenko, A., Salmon, D. P., Galasko, D. R., Brewer, J. B., & Gollan, T. H. (2019) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2019.107131 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
The effect of language skills on dementia in a Swedish longitudinal cohort
Ljungberg, J. K., Hansson, P., Adolfsson, R., & Nilsson, L. (2016) · Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism · doi:10.1075/lab.14031.lju · Cited by 20 · see citing works
The relationship of bilingualism to cognitive decline: The Australian Longitudinal Study of Ageing
Mukadam, N., Jichi, F., Green, D. W., & Livingston, G. (2018) · International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/gps.4778 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“Subjective reports correlate with objective measures of language proficiency and are a valid measure.(22) Most of the questionnaire was self‐administered in English without an interpreter, so those completing the questionnaire needed a good command of English.”
BackgroundResultWeissberger, G. H., Gollan, T. H., Bondi, M. W., Nation, D. A., Hansen, L. A., Galasko, D. R., & Salmon, D. P. (2019) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-180351 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“%) in their non-dominant language, for an average bilingual index score (non-dominant/dominant; see [33]) of 55% (SD = 21%).”
Electrophysiological correlates of emotion word processing in Spanish–English bilinguals
Vélez-Uribe, I., & Rosselli, M. (2020) · Bilingualism Language and Cognition · doi:10.1017/s136672892000036x · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Does bilingualism increase brain or cognitive reserve in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy?
Reyes, A., Paul, B. M., Marshall, A. J., Chang, Y. A., Bahrami, N., Kansal, L., Iragui, V. J., Tecoma, E. S., Gollan, T. H., & McDonald, C. R. (2018) · Epilepsia · doi:10.1111/epi.14072 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Bilingual proficiency and cognitive reserve in Persian–English bilingual older adults
Jafari, Z., Esmaili, M., Toufan, R., & Aghamollaei, M. (2014) · Aging Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1007/s40520-014-0288-x · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Maschio, N. D., Fedeli, D., & Abutalebi, J. (2018) · Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism · doi:10.1075/lab.18032.del · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Bilingual benefits in education and health
Spitzer, M. (2016) · Trends in Neuroscience and Education · doi:10.1016/j.tine.2016.07.004 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Language proficiency does not modulate executive control in older bilinguals
Mishra, R. K., Padmanabhuni, M., Bhandari, P. N., Viswambharan, S., & Prasad, S. G. (2018) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825585.2018.1562029 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“Gollan et al. (2011) found that the age of onset of Alzheimer’s disease in SpanishEnglish bilinguals was later than in monolinguals, but only for the low-educated bilinguals.”
BackgroundDoes bilingualism protect against cognitive aging?
Watson, C. W., Manly, J. J., & Zahodne, L. B. (2016) · Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism · doi:10.1075/lab.15043.wat · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Saint‐Aubin, J., Hilchey, M. D., Mishra, R. K., Singh, N., Savoie, D., Guitard, D., & Klein, R. M. (2018) · Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology/Revue canadienne de psychologie expérimentale · doi:10.1037/cep0000151 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Ageing with bilingualism: benefits and challenges
Nickels, L., Hameau, S., Nair, V. K., Barr, P., & Biedermann, B. (2019) · Speech Language and Hearing · doi:10.1080/2050571x.2018.1555988 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“This is often attributed to the fact that bilingual speakers have reduced use of words in each language (frequency lag: e.g., Gollan et al., 2008; Gollan et al., 2011) – they speak each language less than monolinguals who speak it all of the time.”
BackgroundTorres, V. L., Rosselli, M., Loewenstein, D., Lang, M. K., Vélez-Uribe, I., Arruda, F., Conniff, J., Curiel, R. E., Greig, M. T., Barker, W., et al. (2021) · Bilingualism Language and Cognition · doi:10.1017/s1366728921000705 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Rosselli et al. (2019) used the same measure in their study, and Gollan, Salmon, Montoya, and Galasko (2011) originally developed a similar BI using scores from the Boston Naming Test (Kaplan, Goodglass & Weintraub, 1983), dividing the proportion of pictures named correctly in one language by the…”
MethodLiu, Y., Liu, Y., Yip, P., Meguro, M., & Meguro, K. (2017) · Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1111/psyg.12230 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
MacDonald, B., Berrios-Siervo, G. M., Díaz‐Santos, M., Sánchez, O., Suárez, P., Diaz, A. L., Moss, N. C., & Strutt, A. M. (2023) · Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology · doi:10.1093/arclin/acac108 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Achaa-Amankwaa, P., Münch, E., Miksch, H., Stumme, J., Heim, S., & Ebersbach, M. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-43961-7 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“For one, and most frequently noted, there is the confounding of bi-and multilingualism with other variables affecting the cognitive reserve, such as educational attainment, socio-economic status, and immigration status 47–49 .”
Trebits, A. (2019) · International Journal of Multilingualism · doi:10.1080/14790718.2019.1678626 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Schweizer, T. A., Craik, F. I. M., & Bialystok, E. (2012) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2012.10.012 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“The bilingual delay effectwas also replicated in a study of SpanishEnglish bilinguals in California by Gollan et al. (2011) although only in less educated Hispanics.”
Result
- Authors
- Gollan, T. H., Salmon, D. P., Montoya, R. I., & Galasko, D. R.
- Affiliations
- University of California San Diego (US)
- Corresponding author
- Gollan, Tamar H.
- Venue
- Neuropsychologia
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2011-12
- Volume
- 49
- Issue
- 14
- Pages
- 3826-3830
- ISSN
- 0028-3932 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3223277
- OpenAlex
- W2022236503
- Cited by
- 218
- References
- 17
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 14 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 20 · 2020: 37 · 2019: 28 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 17 · 2016: 22 · 2015: 10 · 2014: 14 · 2013: 10 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 6.38
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Neuropsychologia (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Aging (P50AG005131, P50-AG05131)
- National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (R01DC011492)
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01HD050287)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Dementia and Cognitive Impairment Research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neurobiology of Language and Bilingualism
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Historical and Modern Theater Studies
- Keywords
- bilingualism, Alzheimer's disease, age at diagnosis, Spanish-English bilinguals, educational attainment, cognitive reserve, Boston Naming Test, dementia onset, Hispanic older adults
- MeSH terms
- Age Factors, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Alzheimer Disease, Educational Status, Female, Hispanic or Latino, Humans, Male, Names, Neuropsychological Tests, Age of Onset, Multilingualism
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