The role of online social comparison as a protective factor for psychological wellbeing: A longitudinal study during the COVID-19 quarantine
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During the COVID-19 pandemic crisis, the experience of quarantine has been an undesirable condition for people and it can have a negative impact on mental health and psychological wellbeing. Social isolation has led to an increase in time spent on social network sites, with people interacting more frequently with each other, and comparing online the way in which they are experiencing the same state of home confinement. Our study aimed to investigate the role of online social comparison on individuals' psychological distress and life satisfaction during the COVID-19-related quarantine. Specifically, a cross-lagged panel study at three-waves was conducted in Italy in order to examine the change in psychosocial distress levels (e.g. depression, anxiety, stress, loneliness, low life-satisfaction) from before the quarantine for a period of one month, as well as the predictive role of online social comparison to ameliorate individual distress. An online survey was distributed through a social media platform three times after the initial lockdown and at the epidemic's peak two and five weeks later. A total of 113 participants participated in an online survey between the 7th of March and 14th of April 2020. The results showed an increase in the levels of loneliness, depression, stress, anxiety and a decrease in the level of life satisfaction in the pre/post quarantine comparison. Our cross-lagged results also showed that online social comparison at T1 and T2 predicted the individual's improvement in levels of anxiety, stress, loneliness and life satisfaction over time. Overall, the results of the current study underline the positive effects of online social comparison on the reduction of psychological distress during the COVID-19 quarantine.
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A study in Italy suggested an increase in stress, anxiety, and life satisfaction levels between the second and third testing sessions, but a stable depression level over time.
“A study conducted at three separate times during the first month of lockdown in Italy suggested an increase in stress, anxiety and life satisfaction levels between the second and the third testing sessions, but a stable depression level over time (46).”
From The Evolution of Psychological and Behavioral Consequences of Self-Isolation During Lockdown: A Longitudinal Study Across United Kingdom and Italy (2022) · cites this paper as [46]
The Results (Test of hypotheses; page not provided) report increased stress and anxiety from T2 to T3, and no significant depression change across that interval. But life satisfaction decreased, not increased, from T2 to T3; depression also increased significantly from T1 to T2, so it was not stable over the full study period. (LLM, conf=0.90)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredOur research suggested significant deleterious effects after the first week, followed by stabilization of scores during the subsequent quarantine period, supporting the view that individuals may adapt to the negative consequences of social isolation and home confinement.
“Consistent with the literature, our research suggested significant deleterious effects after the first week, followed by stabilization of the scores during the subsequent quarantine period, supporting the view that individuals may adapt to the negative consequences of social isolation and home confinement (10, 46, 93).”
From The Evolution of Psychological and Behavioral Consequences of Self-Isolation During Lockdown: A Longitudinal Study Across United Kingdom and Italy (2022) · cites this paper as [46]
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InfluentialThe less depressive state of Denmark following the second wave of the COVID-19 pandemic
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“, 2021), which resonates well with findings from other Danish and international studies conducted in the same period (Fancourt et al., 2020; Kimhi et al., 2020; Mehrsafar et al., 2021; Ramiz et al., 2021; Ruggieri et al., 2021; Savage et al., 2021; Thygesen et al., 2021; Varga et al., 2021).”
InfluentialImpact of social comparison on perceived online academic futility: A perspective from parents
Wang, Q., Song, X., Hong, J., Li, S., Zhang, M., & Yang, X. (2022) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-022-11402-z · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“Finally, guided by social comparison theory (Stefano et al., 2020), the current study built on previous research by simultaneously examining the relationship between social comparison (upward social comparison and downward social comparison) and parental perceived academic futility.”
Bonfanti, R. C., Salerno, L., Brugnera, A., & Coco, G. L. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-26281-0 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Self-citationElshaer, I. A., Azazz, A. M. S., Alyahya, M. A., Mohammad, A. A. A., Fayyad, S., & Elsawy, O. (2025) · Tourism and Hospitality · doi:10.3390/tourhosp6010046 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“According to Ruggieri et al. (2021), being well-adjusted, reaching one’s potential, feeling control over one’s life, and making important relationships are all considered indicators of a person’s state of mind and job satisfaction.”
Yang, Q., Gu, J., & Hong, J. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.708221 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Guided by social comparison theory (Stefano et al., 2020), the present study expanded on previous research by simultaneously examining the effects of upward social comparison and downward social comparison on guidance types mediated by parents’ tutoring anxiety in a sample of Chinese primary school students’ parents.”
Kashian, N. (2022) · Cyberpsychology Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace · doi:10.5817/cp2022-4-6 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Studies about COVID-19 have shown that individuals placed in quarantine (Ruggieri et al., 2021; Sibley et al., 2020) and isolation (Groarke et al., 2020) report increases in loneliness and mental distress, though Groarke et al.’s measure for isolation included people who were not officially…”
InfluentialAlbano, G., Bonfanti, R. C., Gullo, S., Salerno, L., & Coco, G. L. (2021) · Research in Psychotherapy Psychopathology Process and Outcome · doi:10.4081/ripppo.2021.557 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Therefore, analysis of the language used in social media may represent an important research area to pursue during the pandemic, given that it provides indicators of mental health in people experiencing the stressful COVID-19-related restrictions (Ruggieri et al., 2021; Su et al., 2020).”
InfluentialSelf-citationBuunk, A. P., & Brenninkmeijer, V. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph192013139 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“, [22]), and in the context of the working environment, social comparison is a quite prevalent phenomenon (e.”
Zaninotto, F., Bossi, F., Terry, P., Riccaboni, M., & Galli, G. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.826277 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Consistent with the literature, our research suggested significant deleterious effects after the first week, followed by stabilization of the scores during the subsequent quarantine period, supporting the view that individuals may adapt to the negative consequences of social isolation and home confinement (10, 46, 93).”
InfluentialMrad, M., Itani, O. S., & Cui, C. C. (2025) · European Journal of Marketing · doi:10.1108/ejm-02-2024-0103 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Pause But Not Panic: Exploring COVID-19 as a Critical Incident for Nonprofit Workers
Kuenzi, K., Stewart, A. J., & Walk, M. (2023) · Review of Public Personnel Administration · doi:10.1177/0734371x221149128 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“…(Gibbons & Buunk, 1999), is particularly common in stressful or taxing experiences (such as a pandemic) when individuals are more likely to compare themselves and their experiences to people who are worse-off than they are and can result in more positive self-assessments (Ruggieri et al., 2021).”
Wu, T., & Shakibaei, G. (2025) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2025.105291 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Thomas, L. E., Emich, A., Weiss, E. R., Zisman, C. R., Foray, K., Roberts, D. M., Page, E., & Monique Ernst, D. (2022) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/17456916221078310 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Ruggieri et al. (2021) found in their longitudinal study that levels of depression, anxiety, and stress were higher in Italy after the lockdown compared with before the lockdown.”
Bonfanti, R. C., Garro, M., Lavanco, G., & Ruggieri, S. A. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1105556 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationIwanowska, M., Zawadzka, A. M., & Kondratowicz, B. (2023) · Current Issues in Personality Psychology · doi:10.5114/cipp/156172 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“…the COVID-19 pandemic showed that social comparisons on social media may lead to elevated life satisfaction – both by treating the information as a reference point for assessing one’s life situation and by creating a unity of common experiences and sharing painful emotions (Ruggieri et al., 2021).”
Silveira, S., Hecht, M., Voelkle, M. C., & Singer, T. (2023) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2974 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Jantsch, A., Buchenrieder, G. R., Dufhues, T. B., & Möllers, J. (2024) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-024-00790-3 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Moreover, during the pandemic, people relied more on social media for information, connection, and comparisons (Ruggieri et al., 2021: 1; Yue et al., 2022: 3).”
de Pedraza, P., & Vicente, M. R. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph181910056 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Though our data were posterior to the general lockdown of the population, people have been suffering from loneliness throughout the entire pandemic [50,51].”
Policy and public health implications for mental health after the COVID-19 pandemic
Nakimuli‐Mpungu, E., Arango, C., Dandona, R., Ford, T. J., John, A., Jordan, A., Cherop, R., Kola, L., López‐Jaramillo, C., Schuster, A., et al. (2026) · The Lancet Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(25)00358-x · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Tibber, M. S., Milne, G. A., Fonagy, P., & Dekker, T. M. (2023) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2023.12.006 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“We reasoned that this would represent a major source of social connection during the lockdown, with positive links to MH (Choi and Choung, 2021; Ruggieri et al., 2021).”
Bonfanti, R. C., Foti, G., Giorgi, G., & Ruggieri, S. A. (2025) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2025.104769 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Self-citationChen, Y. (2025) · Computers in Human Behavior Reports · doi:10.1016/j.chbr.2025.100665 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
How thoughts of death and intrinsic/extrinsic goal orientation affect well‐being during the pandemic
Sönmez, F. (2021) · Journal of Consumer Affairs · doi:10.1111/joca.12411 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Dispositional Malicious Envy and Workplace Deviance: Divergent Thinking as a Mediator
Hussain, U., & Mohr, I. (2023) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/21582440231200310 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Similarly, Ruggieri et al. (2021) utilized social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954) to decipher the role of online social comparison on people’s mental stress and life satisfaction during the COVID-19 pandemic.”
Danilova, V. V., Popova, S., & Карпова, В. М. (2021) · Monitoring obŝestvennogo mneniâ: èkonomičeskie i socialʹnye peremeny · doi:10.14515/monitoring.2021.6.2044 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Shilton, T., Mancini, A., Perlstein, S., DiDomenico, G. E., Visoki, E., Greenberg, D. M., Brown, L. A., Gur, R., Waller, R., & Barzilay, R. (2021) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2021.10.08.21264752 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Kuang, J., Zhang, W., Zhang, H., Lin, N., Fang, J., Song, R., Xin, Z., & Wang, J. (2024) · Psychology Research and Behavior Management · doi:10.2147/prbm.s464848 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“22 Some research suggested a bidirectional relationship between social isolation and mental health issues such as depression and anxiety.”
Konseling Online Untuk Meningkatkan Kesejahteraan Psikologis
Mulawarman, M., Antika, E. R., Hariyadi, S., Soputan, S. D. M., Saputri, N. R., & Saputri, F. Q. (2022) · TERAPUTIK Jurnal Bimbingan dan Konseling · doi:10.26539/teraputik.53798 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Effects of Social Comparisons on Wellbeing
Sirgy, M. J. (2021) · Social indicators research series · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-71888-6_15 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Tibber, M. S., Wang, M., & Zhang, C. (2024) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2024.2356358 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“…a number of studies have found positive associations between upward social comparisons and well-being/mental health, presumably reflecting upward identification, e.g., Ruggieri et al. (2021), as well as the absence of an impact of downward comparisons on wellbeing, e.g., Feltman & Szymanski (2018).”
University students’ reactions to social comparison via digital trans-literacies
Ding, J., Zhang, Y., Jiang, L., & Gu, M. M. (2025) · Linguistics and Education · doi:10.1016/j.linged.2025.101461 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
del Castillo, J. A. G., García-Castillo, F., Dias, P. C., & del Castillo‐López, Á. G. (2021) · African journal of rhetoric · doi:10.21134/haaj.v21i2.697 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Intervenções para ansiedade que podem ser utilizadas por enfermeiros: revisão de escopo
Pereira, C. F., de Vargas, D., Santana, K. D. O., de Araújo, M. P. B., Ueda, N. M., Evangelista, P. A., & Nunes, S. R. (2023) · Acta Paulista de Enfermagem · doi:10.37689/acta-ape/2023ar008232 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Psicoeducação online não guiada ou autoguiada((14,16,19,26,28-45)) Informativos para cuidados preventivos com a COVID-19((26,28-30))”
An Exploration of how Trust Online Relates to Psychological and Subjective Wellbeing
Dowthwaite, L., Vallejos, E. P., Portillo, V., Patel, M., Zhao, J., & Creswick, H. (2023) · International Symposium on Trustworthy Autonomous Systems (TAS) · doi:10.1145/3597512.3599708 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“During the pandemic, positive online social comparison predicted improvements in anxiety, stress, loneliness, and life satisfaction [62].”
Soraci, P., Bevan, N., Pisanti, R., Servidio, R. C., & Griffiths, M. D. (2025) · Cogent Psychology · doi:10.1080/23311908.2025.2489823 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Holas, P., Juszczyk-Kalina, A., Wardęszkiewicz, J., Ciarrochi, J., & Hayes, S. C. (2025) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare13080934 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“At the same time, certain behavioral and cognitive strategies, such as adaptive social comparisons or online engagement, may have helped buffer psychological well-being during lockdowns [10].”
The Importance of Social Support during Imprisonment: A Case of Malaysian Drug-Abuse Prisoners
Baharudin, M. N., Mohamad, M., & Karim, F. B. (2021) · International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences · doi:10.6007/ijarbss/v11-i7/10319 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Festinger introduced the theory in 1954 to study the individuals' adaptation performed of social cognitive by comparing with others (Ruggieri et al., 2020).”
Lopera, A., Duarte, M. A., Echeverri, L. M., Suarez, E., & Lemos, M. (2023) · CES Psicología · doi:10.21615/cesp.6322 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Paralelamente, este fenómeno puede relacionarse tanto con el aumento en la sensación de soledad y la búsqueda de apoyo social (Ruggieri et al., 2021) como con la sensación de aburrimiento reportada por el 58.2% de los adultos jóvenes participantes del presente estudio.”
InfluentialJonathan, J. G., & Zhu, F. (2025) · International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour & Research · doi:10.1108/ijebr-05-2024-0560 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Social Media Use Purposes and Psychological Wellbeing in Times of Crises
Wang, T., & Deng, X. N. (2023) · Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS) · doi:10.24251/hicss.2023.779 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Re-appropriation of public spaces in the Tunisian city of Sousse post COVID-19 pandemic
Cherifa, Y. A. B., Bouzgarrou, A. R., Claramunt, C., & Rejeb, H. (2025) · Journal of Urbanism International Research on Placemaking and Urban Sustainability · doi:10.1080/17549175.2025.2503720 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Rehma, S. (2023) · ASEAN Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.54615/2231-7805.47326 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“The natures of relationships due to digital communication on social media applications are distorting the relationship-induced self-concept of adolescents [10].”
PERCEPTIONS OF THE LOCKDOWN: CURRENT AND RETROSPECTIVE ASSESSMENTS
Егорова, М. А., Parshikova, O. V., Tkachenko, D. P., & Chertkova, Y. D. (2021) · Psychological applications and trends · doi:10.36315/2021inpact043 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Liu, T., Xia, Y., & Ma, Z. (2023) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/6u8nf · Cited by 1 · see citing works
How social media can crush your self-esteem
Laplante, S. (2022) · doi:10.64628/aap.fdce5ugmh · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Mannino, G., Salerno, L., Bonfanti, R. C., Albano, G., & Coco, G. L. (2021) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-622603/v1
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Song, I. (2023) · Korean Journal of Journalism & Communication Studies · doi:10.20879/kjjcs.2023.67.2.003
Streben nach Glück als globale Vorstellung und Kompetenz
Genkova, P., & Schreiber, H. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-30684-7_12-1
وضعية الحجر الصحى وتحقيق التنمية الذاتية فى ظل جائحة كورونا فى مصر
داود, ا. ن. (2023) · حوليات أداب عين شمس · doi:10.21608/aafu.2023.308596
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Streben nach Glück als globale Vorstellung und Kompetenz
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Coming Back to Campus: Factors Contributing Post-COVID-19 Adjustment of University Students
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Rogowska, A. M., Ochnik, D., Kuśnierz, C., Jakubiak, M., Schütz, A., Held, M. J., Arzenšek, A., Benatov, J., Berger, R., Korchagina, E. V., et al. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.17163401
- Authors
- Ruggieri, S., Ingoglia, S., Bonfanti, R. C., & Lo Coco, G.
- Affiliations
- Università degli Studi di Enna Kore (IT)
- University of Palermo (IT)
- Venue
- Personality and Individual Differences
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2021-03
- Volume
- 171
- Pages
- 110486
- ISSN
- 0191-8869 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7610095
- OpenAlex
- W3094758130
- Cited by
- 107
- References
- 45
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 23 · 2022: 27 · 2021: 27
- FWCI
- 7.71
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Personality and Individual Differences (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Nova Science Publishers (Nova Science Publishers, Inc.) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
- Social Sciences › Communication › Communication and COVID-19 Impact
- Keywords
- COVID-19 quarantine, psychological well-being, psychological distress, loneliness, depression, anxiety, stress, life satisfaction, social isolation, social network sites, protective factors, lockdown
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