In Search of Golden Rules: Comment on Hypothesis-Testing Approaches to Setting Cutoff Values for Fit Indexes and Dangers in Overgeneralizing Hu and Bentler's (1999) Findings
Abstract
Goodness-of-fit (GOF) indexes provide "rules of thumb"—recommended cutoff values for assessing fit in structural equation modeling. Hu and Bentler (1999) proposed a more rigorous approach to evaluating decision rules based on GOF indexes and, on this basis, proposed new and more stringent cutoff values for many indexes. This article discusses potential problems underlying the hypothesis-testing rationale of their research, which is more appropriate to testing statistical significance than evaluating GOF. Many of their misspecified models resulted in a fit that should have been deemed acceptable according to even their new, more demanding criteria. Hence, rejection of these acceptable-misspecified models should have constituted a Type 1 error (incorrect rejection of an "acceptable" model), leading to the seemingly paradoxical results whereby the probability of correctly rejecting misspecified models decreased substantially with increasing N. In contrast to the application of cutoff values to evaluate each solution in isolation, all the GOF indexes were more effective at identifying differences in misspecification based on nested models. Whereas Hu and Bentler (1999) offered cautions about the use of GOF indexes, current practice seems to have incorporated their new guidelines without sufficient attention to the limitations noted by Hu and Bentler (1999).
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Cites
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999) · Structural Equation Modeling A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1080/10705519909540118 · Cited by 108,788 · see citing works
Alternative Ways of Assessing Model Fit
Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1992) · Sociological Methods & Research · doi:10.1177/0049124192021002005 · Cited by 27,200 · see citing works
Significance tests and goodness of fit in the analysis of covariance structures.
Bentler, P. M., & Bonett, D. G. (1980) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.88.3.588 · Cited by 19,266 · see citing works
Structural Equations with Latent Variables
Bollen, K. A. (1989) · Wiley series in probability and statistics · doi:10.1002/9781118619179 · Cited by 17,512 · see citing works
Structural Equations with Latent Variables.
Clogg, C. C., & Bollen, K. A. (1991) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2072165 · Cited by 17,471 · see citing works
Hu, L.-T., & Bentler, P. M. (1998) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.3.4.424 · Cited by 12,298 · see citing works
Power analysis and determination of sample size for covariance structure modeling.
MacCallum, R. C., Browne, M. W., & Sugawara, H. M. (1996) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.1.2.130 · Cited by 10,418 · see citing works
(1993) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 7,690 · see citing works
A Reliability Coefficient for Maximum Likelihood Factor Analysis
Tucker, L. R., & Lewis, C. (1973) · Psychometrika · doi:10.1007/bf02291170 · Cited by 7,330 · see citing works
Structural Equation Modeling With AMOS: Basic Concepts, Applications, and Programming, Third Edition
Byrne, B. M. (2016) · doi:10.4324/9781315757421 · Cited by 4,653 · see citing works
Goodness-of-fit indexes in confirmatory factor analysis: The effect of sample size.
Marsh, H. W., Balla, J. R., & McDonald, R. P. (1988) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.103.3.391 · Cited by 3,833 · see citing works
Self-citationStatistically based tests for the number of common factors
Steiger, J. H. (1980) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 2,413 · see citing works
Choosing a multivariate model: Noncentrality and goodness of fit.
McDonald, R. P., & Marsh, H. W. (1990) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.107.2.247 · Cited by 1,439 · see citing works
Self-citationRussell, D. W. (2002) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/014616702237645 · Cited by 954 · see citing works
Principles of Psychological Measurement
Dale, R. R., & Helmstadter, G. C. (1968) · British Journal of Educational Studies · doi:10.2307/3119229 · Cited by 487 · see citing works
Goodness of fit in confirmatory factor analysis: The effects of sample size and model parsimony
Marsh, H. W., & Balla, J. R. (1994) · Quality & Quantity · doi:10.1007/bf01102761 · Cited by 212 · see citing works
Self-citationPrinciples of psychological measurement
Lemke, E. A., & Wiersma, W. (1976) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 119 · see citing works
King, D. W., King, L. A., Erickson, D. J., Huang, M. T., Sharkansky, E. J., & Wolfe, J. (2000) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-843x.109.4.624 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
A method for exploring the effects of attrition in randomized experiments with dichotomous outcomes
Shadish, W., Hu, X.-G., Glaser, R., Kownacki, R. J., & Wong, S. (1998) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.3.1.3 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Adolescent offenders and stages of change.
Hemphill, J. F., & Howell, A. J. (2000) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/1040-3590.12.4.371 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Sensitivity of Goodness of Fit Indexes to Lack of Measurement Invariance
Chen, F. F. (2007) · Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1080/10705510701301834 · Cited by 12,217 · see citing works
Structural Equation Modelling: Guidelines for Determining Model Fit
Hooper, D., Coughlan, J., & Mullen, M. R. (2008) · Dublin Institute of Technology · doi:10.21427/d7cf7r · Cited by 8,746 · see citing works
Scale Development Research: A Content Analysis and Recommendations for Best Practices
Worthington, R. L., & Whittaker, T. A. (2006) · The Counseling Psychologist · doi:10.1177/0011000006288127 · Cited by 4,087 · see citing works
Specification, evaluation, and interpretation of structural equation models
Bagozzi, R. P., & Yi, Y. (2012) · Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science · doi:10.1007/s11747-011-0278-x · Cited by 3,735 · see citing works
Consumer Brand Engagement in Social Media: Conceptualization, Scale Development and Validation
Hollebeek, L. D., Glynn, M. S., & Brodie, R. J. (2014) · Journal of Interactive Marketing · doi:10.1016/j.intmar.2013.12.002 · Cited by 3,276 · see citing works
A Brief Guide to Structural Equation Modeling
Weston, R., & Gore, P. A. (2006) · The Counseling Psychologist · doi:10.1177/0011000006286345 · Cited by 2,718 · see citing works
Structural equation modelling: Adjudging model fit
Barrett, P. T. (2006) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2006.09.018 · Cited by 2,640 · see citing works
Thanks coefficient alpha, we’ll take it from here.
McNeish, D. (2018) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/met0000144 · Cited by 2,533 · see citing works
On making causal claims: A review and recommendations
Antonakis, J., Bendahan, S., Jacquart, P., & Lalive, R. (2010) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2010.10.010 · Cited by 2,441 · see citing works
Structural Equation Modeling and Natural Systems
Grace, J. B. (2006) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511617799 · Cited by 2,432 · see citing works
Structural equations modeling: Fit Indices, sample size, and advanced topics
Iacobucci, D. (2010) · Journal of Consumer Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jcps.2009.09.003 · Cited by 2,263 · see citing works
Reporting practices in confirmatory factor analysis: an overview and some recommendations
Jackson, D. L., Gillaspy, J. A., & Purc-Stephenson, R. (2009) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/a0014694 · Cited by 2,242 · see citing works
Introducing the Short Dark Triad (SD3): A Brief Measure of Dark Personality Traits
Jones, D. N., & Paulhus, D. L. (2014) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191113514105 · Cited by 2,162 · see citing works
The Sources of Four Commonly Reported Cutoff Criteria: What Did They Really Say?
Lance, C. E., Butts, M. M., & Michels, L. C. (2006) · Organizational Research Methods · doi:10.1177/1094428105284919 · Cited by 2,053 · see citing works
Scherer, R., Siddiq, F., & Tondeur, J. (2019) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2018.09.009 · Cited by 1,923 · see citing works
El análisis factorial exploratorio de los ítems: una guía práctica, revisada y actualizada
Lloret-Segura, S., Traver, A. F., Hernández, A., & Tomás-Marco, I. (2014) · Anales de Psicología · doi:10.6018/analesps.30.3.199361 · Cited by 1,798 · see citing works
Xia, Y. R., & Yang, Y. (2018) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-018-1055-2 · Cited by 1,692 · see citing works
Gefen (2011) · doi:10.2307/23044042 · Cited by 1,596 · see citing works
Chen, F., Curran, P. J., Bollen, K. A., Kirby, J., & Paxton, P. (2008) · Sociological Methods & Research · doi:10.1177/0049124108314720 · Cited by 1,538 · see citing works
How to factor-analyze your data right: do’s, don’ts, and how-to’s.
Matsunaga, M. (2010) · International journal of psychological research · doi:10.21500/20112084.854 · Cited by 1,431 · see citing works
The impact of job crafting on job demands, job resources, and well-being.
Tims, M., Bakker, A. B., & Derks, D. (2013) · Journal of Occupational Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0032141 · Cited by 1,325 · see citing works
Beauducel, A., & Herzberg, P. Y. (2006) · Structural Equation Modeling A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1207/s15328007sem1302_2 · Cited by 1,299 · see citing works
Marsh, H. W., Lüdtke, O., Trautwein, U., & Morin, A. J. S. (2009) · Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1080/10705510902751010 · Cited by 1,245 · see citing works
Self-citationModel fit and model selection in structural equation modeling.
West, S. G., Taylor, A. B., & Wu, W. (2012) · Cited by 1,232 · see citing works
Masten, A. S., Roisman, G. I., Long, J. D., Burt, K. B., Obradović, J., Riley, J. R., Boelcke-Stennes, K., & Tellegen, A. (2005) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.41.5.733 · Cited by 1,152 · see citing works
Osman, A., Wong, J. L., Bagge, C. L., Freedenthal, S. L., Gutierrez, P. M., & Lozano, G. (2012) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.21908 · Cited by 1,097 · see citing works
Marsh, H. W., Muthén, B., Asparouhov, T., Lüdtke, O., Robitzsch, A., Morin, A. J. S., & Trautwein, U. (2009) · Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1080/10705510903008220 · Cited by 1,093 · see citing works
Self-citationAchievement Emotions and Academic Performance: Longitudinal Models of Reciprocal Effects
Pekrun, R., Lichtenfeld, S., Marsh, H. W., Murayama, K., & Goetz, T. (2017) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12704 · Cited by 1,091 · see citing works
Self-citationPatrick, H., Ryan, A. M., & Kaplan, A. (2007) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.99.1.83 · Cited by 1,085 · see citing works
Bartholomew, K. J., Ntoumanis, N., Ryan, R. M., Bosch, J. A., & Thøgersen-Ntoumani, C. (2011) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167211413125 · Cited by 1,064 · see citing works
Structural Equation Modeling in Marketing: Some Practical Reminders
Chin, W. W., Peterson, R. A., & Brown, S. P. (2008) · The Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice · doi:10.2753/mtp1069-6679160402 · Cited by 1,044 · see citing works
Current Methodological Considerations in Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analysis
Schmitt, T. A. (2011) · Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment · doi:10.1177/0734282911406653 · Cited by 995 · see citing works
Ferguson, S. L., Moore, E. W. G., & Hull, D. M. (2019) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/0165025419881721 · Cited by 969 · see citing works
Clarifying conditions and decision points for mediational type inferences in Organizational Behavior
Mathieu, J. E., & Taylor, S. R. (2006) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.406 · Cited by 961 · see citing works
Trainor, K. J., Andzulis, J. “., Rapp, A. A., & Agnihotri, R. (2013) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2013.05.002 · Cited by 958 · see citing works
Measuring Belief in Conspiracy Theories: The Generic Conspiracist Beliefs Scale
Brotherton, R., French, C. C., & Pickering, A. D. (2013) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00279 · Cited by 950 · see citing works
A new look at the big five factor structure through exploratory structural equation modeling
Marsh, H. W., Lüdtke, O., Muthén, B., Asparouhov, T., Morin, A. J. S., Trautwein, U., & Nagengast, B. (2010) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/a0019227 · Cited by 899 · see citing works
Self-citationStructural Equation Modeling: Strengths, Limitations, and Misconceptions
Tomarken, A. J., & Waller, N. G. (2004) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.144239 · Cited by 892 · see citing works
What Does the Narcissistic Personality Inventory Really Measure?
Ackerman, R. A., Witt, E. A., Donnellan, M. B., Trzesniewski, K. H., Robins, R. W., & Kashy, D. A. (2010) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191110382845 · Cited by 871 · see citing works
Morin, A. J. S., Arens, A. K., & Marsh, H. W. (2015) · Structural Equation Modeling A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1080/10705511.2014.961800 · Cited by 852 · see citing works
Self-citationMeasurement Equivalence in Cross-National Research
Davidov, E., Meuleman, B., Cieciuch, J., Schmidt, P., & Billiet, J. (2014) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-071913-043137 · Cited by 794 · see citing works
Psychological Need Thwarting in the Sport Context: Assessing the Darker Side of Athletic Experience
Bartholomew, K. J., Ntoumanis, N., Ryan, R. M., & Thøgersen‐Ntoumani, C. (2011) · Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1123/jsep.33.1.75 · Cited by 776 · see citing works
Shipp, A. J., Edwards, J. R., & Lambert, L. S. (2009) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2009.05.001 · Cited by 775 · see citing works
Evaluating Model Fit:a Synthesis of the Structural Equation Modelling Literature
Hooper, D., Coughlan, J. P., & Mullen, M. R. (2008) · Arrow@dit (Dublin Institute of Technology) · doi:10.21427/d79b73 · Cited by 748 · see citing works
Davidov, E., Schmidt, P., & Schwartz, S. H. (2008) · Public Opinion Quarterly · doi:10.1093/poq/nfn035 · Cited by 743 · see citing works
Testing for multigroup equivalence of a measuring instrument: a walk through the process.
Byrne, B. M. (2008) · PubMed · Cited by 722 · see citing works
Factor Analysis in Counseling Psychology Research, Training, and Practice
Kahn, J. H. (2006) · The Counseling Psychologist · doi:10.1177/0011000006286347 · Cited by 694 · see citing works
Knekta, E., Runyon, C., & Eddy, S. L. (2019) · CBE—Life Sciences Education · doi:10.1187/cbe.18-04-0064 · Cited by 694 · see citing works
Thinking green, buying green? Drivers of pro-environmental purchasing behavior
Moser, A. K. (2015) · Journal of Consumer Marketing · doi:10.1108/jcm-10-2014-1179 · Cited by 693 · see citing works
Arciniega, G. M., Anderson, T. C., Tovar‐Blank, Z. G., & Tracey, T. J. G. (2008) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0167.55.1.19 · Cited by 681 · see citing works
Gerontechnology acceptance by elderly Hong Kong Chinese: A senior technology acceptance model (STAM)
Chen, K., & Chan, A. H. S. (2014) · Ergonomics · doi:10.1080/00140139.2014.895855 · Cited by 679 · see citing works
Testing Structural Equation Models or Detection of Misspecifications?
Saris, W. E., Satorra, A., & van der Veld, W. M. (2009) · Structural Equation Modeling A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1080/10705510903203433 · Cited by 679 · see citing works
How Should the Internal Structure of Personality Inventories Be Evaluated?
Hopwood, C. J., & Donnellan, M. B. (2010) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868310361240 · Cited by 671 · see citing works
Multiple-Group Analysis of Similarity in Latent Profile Solutions
Morin, A. J. S., Meyer, J. P., Creusier, J., & Biétry, F. (2016) · Organizational Research Methods · doi:10.1177/1094428115621148 · Cited by 664 · see citing works
Comparison of Model Fit Indices Used in Structural Equation Modeling Under Multivariate Normality
Cangür, Ş., & Ercan, İ. (2015) · Journal of Modern Applied Statistical Methods · doi:10.22237/jmasm/1430453580 · Cited by 656 · see citing works
Dam, N. T. V., & Earleywine, M. (2010) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2010.08.018 · Cited by 647 · see citing works
Profiling teachers' readiness for online teaching and learning in higher education: Who's ready?
Scherer, R., Howard, S. K., Tondeur, J., & Siddiq, F. (2020) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2020.106675 · Cited by 647 · see citing works
Tarka, P. (2017) · Quality & Quantity · doi:10.1007/s11135-017-0469-8 · Cited by 645 · see citing works
Student ratings of teaching quality in primary school: Dimensions and prediction of student outcomes
Fauth, B., Decristan, J., Rieser, S., Klieme, E., & Büttner, G. (2013) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.07.001 · Cited by 634 · see citing works
Thinking twice about sum scores
McNeish, D., & Wolf, M. G. (2020) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-020-01398-0 · Cited by 615 · see citing works
Sensitivity of Fit Indices to Model Misspecification and Model Types
Fan, X., & Sivo, S. A. (2007) · Multivariate Behavioral Research · doi:10.1080/00273170701382864 · Cited by 604 · see citing works
Beyond the ‘east–west’ dichotomy: Global variation in cultural models of selfhood.
Vignoles, V. L., Owe, E., Becker, M., Smith, P. B., Easterbrook, M. J., Brown, R., González, R., Didier, N., Carrasco, D., Cadena, M. P., et al. (2016) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/xge0000175 · Cited by 601 · see citing works
Marsh, H. W., Hau, K., Artelt, C., Baumert, J., & Peschar, J. L. (2006) · International Journal of Testing · doi:10.1207/s15327574ijt0604_1 · Cited by 599 · see citing works
Self-citationDifferent types of well-being? A cross-cultural examination of hedonic and eudaimonic well-being
Disabato, D. J., Goodman, F. R., Kashdan, T. B., Short, J. L., & Jarden, A. (2016) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/pas0000209 · Cited by 583 · see citing works
Evaluating Model Fit of Measurement Models in Confirmatory Factor Analysis
Goretzko, D., Siemund, K., & Sterner, P. (2023) · Educational and Psychological Measurement · doi:10.1177/00131644231163813 · Cited by 577 · see citing works
The Search for "Optimal" Cutoff Properties: Fit Index Criteria in Structural Equation Modeling
Sivo, S. A., Fan, X., Witta, E. L., & Willse, J. T. (2006) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.3200/jexe.74.3.267-288 · Cited by 570 · see citing works
McVay, J. C., & Kane, M. J. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/a0025250 · Cited by 562 · see citing works
van der Gaag, M., Hoffman, T. O., REMIJSEN, M., Hijman, R., DEHAAN, L., VANMEIJEL, B., VANHARTEN, P., Valmaggia, L., DEHERT, M., & CUIJPERS, A. (2006) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2006.03.021 · Cited by 555 · see citing works
Bartholomew, K. J., Ntoumanis, N., & Thøgersen‐Ntoumani, C. (2010) · Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1123/jsep.32.2.193 · Cited by 549 · see citing works
An Update and Extension to SEM Guidelines for Admnistrative and Social Science Research
Gefen, D., Rigdon, E. E., & Straub, D. W. (2011) · Journal of the Association for Information Systems · Cited by 542 · see citing works
Marsh, H. W., Pekrun, R., Parker, P. D., Murayama, K., Guo, J., Dicke, T., & Arens, A. K. (2019) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000281 · Cited by 535 · see citing works
Self-citationAttached to meat? (Un)Willingness and intentions to adopt a more plant-based diet
Graça, J., Calheiros, M. M., & Oliveira, A. (2015) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2015.06.024 · Cited by 534 · see citing works
Sass, D. A. (2011) · Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment · doi:10.1177/0734282911406661 · Cited by 531 · see citing works
Exploring relationship development with social chatbots: A mixed-method study of replika
Pentina, I., Hancock, T., & Xie, T. (2023) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2022.107600 · Cited by 522 · see citing works
The Problem with Having Two Watches: Assessment of Fit When RMSEA and CFI Disagree
Lai, K., & Green, S. B. (2016) · Multivariate Behavioral Research · doi:10.1080/00273171.2015.1134306 · Cited by 514 · see citing works
Beck, J. G., Grant, D. M., Read, J. P., Clapp, J. D., Coffey, S. F., Miller, L. M., & Palyo, S. A. (2007) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2007.02.007 · Cited by 506 · see citing works
Short assessment of the Big Five: robust across survey methods except telephone interviewing
Lang, F. R., John, D. T., Lüdtke, O., Schupp, J., & Wagner, G. G. (2011) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-011-0066-z · Cited by 500 · see citing works
Akter, S., Wamba, S. F., & Dewan, S. M. (2017) · Production Planning & Control · doi:10.1080/09537287.2016.1267411 · Cited by 499 · see citing works
Wu, A. D., Li, Z., & Zumbo, B. D. (2020) · Scholarworks (University of Massachusetts Amherst) · doi:10.7275/mhqa-cd89 · Cited by 497 · see citing works
Trautwein, U., Marsh, H. W., Nagengast, B., Lüdtke, O., Nagy, G., & Jonkmann, K. (2012) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0027470 · Cited by 489 · see citing works
Self-citationSheldon, K. M., & Hilpert, J. C. (2012) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-012-9279-4 · Cited by 487 · see citing works
Steffens, N. K., Haslam, S. A., Reicher, S. D., Platow, M. J., Fransen, K., Yang, J., Ryan, M. K., Jetten, J., Peters, K., & Boen, F. (2014) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2014.05.002 · Cited by 487 · see citing works
On doing better science: From thrill of discovery to policy implications
Antonakis, J. (2017) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2017.01.006 · Cited by 483 · see citing works
Choi, S. W., Schalet, B., Cook, K. F., & Cella, D. (2014) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/a0035768 · Cited by 480 · see citing works
Ababneh, O. M. A. (2021) · Journal of Environmental Planning and Management · doi:10.1080/09640568.2020.1814708 · Cited by 477 · see citing works
Marsh, H. W., Guo, J., Dicke, T., Parker, P. D., & Craven, R. G. (2019) · Multivariate Behavioral Research · doi:10.1080/00273171.2019.1602503 · Cited by 473 · see citing works
Self-citationCabrera-Nguyen, P. (2010) · Journal of the Society for Social Work and Research · doi:10.5243/jsswr.2010.8 · Cited by 466 · see citing works
Lonsdale, C., Hodge, K. P., & Rose, E. A. (2008) · Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1123/jsep.30.3.323 · Cited by 463 · see citing works
Raineri, N., & Paillé, P. (2015) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-015-2548-x · Cited by 462 · see citing works
The role of atmospheric cues in online impulse-buying behavior.
Floh, A., & Madlberger, M. (2013) · Electronic Commerce Research and Applications · doi:10.1016/j.elerap.2013.06.001 · Cited by 460 · see citing works
A Tutorial on Hierarchically Structured Constructs
Brunner, M., Nagy, G., & Wilhelm, O. (2012) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2011.00749.x · Cited by 459 · see citing works
Byrne, B. M., & Stewart, S. M. (2006) · Structural Equation Modeling A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1207/s15328007sem1302_7 · Cited by 459 · see citing works
“It's Who I Am … Really!’ The Importance of Integrated Regulation in Exercise Contexts1
Wilson, P. M., Rodgers, W. M., Loitz, C. C., & Scime, G. (2006) · Journal of Applied Biobehavioral Research · doi:10.1111/j.1751-9861.2006.tb00021.x · Cited by 457 · see citing works
Swami, V., & Barron, D. (2019) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2018.08.014 · Cited by 454 · see citing works
The Psychological Need Satisfaction in Exercise Scale
Wilson, P. M., Rogers, W. T., Rodgers, W. M., & Wild, T. C. (2006) · Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1123/jsep.28.3.231 · Cited by 452 · see citing works
Khajavy, G. H., MacIntyre, P. D., & Barabadi, E. (2018) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s0272263117000304 · Cited by 451 · see citing works
School-Related Social Support and Students' Perceived Life Satisfaction
Danielsen, A. G., Samdal, O., Hetland, J., & Wold, B. (2009) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.3200/joer.102.4.303-320 · Cited by 451 · see citing works
Neighborhood Disadvantage: Pathways of Effects for Young Children
Kohen, D., Leventhal, T., Dahinten, V. S., & McIntosh, C. N. (2008) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01117.x · Cited by 450 · see citing works
Roberts, R., Callow, N., Hardy, L., Markland, D. A., & Bringer, J. D. (2008) · Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1123/jsep.30.2.200 · Cited by 449 · see citing works
Psychometric properties of the Positive Mental Health Scale (PMH-scale)
Lukat, J., Margraf, J., Lutz, R., van der Veld, W. M., & Becker, E. S. (2016) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-016-0111-x · Cited by 449 · see citing works
- Authors
- Marsh, H. W., Hau, K.-T., & Wen, Z.
- Affiliations
- Western Sydney University (AU)
- Chinese University of Hong Kong (HK)
- South China Normal University (CN)
- Venue
- Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2004-07
- Volume
- 11
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 320-341
- ISSN
- 1070-5511 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-8007
- OpenAlex
- W2025781576
- Cited by
- 6,691
- References
- 20
- Citations by year
- 2026: 630 · 2025: 545 · 2024: 421 · 2023: 452 · 2022: 485 · 2021: 490 · 2020: 480 · 2019: 413 · 2018: 345 · 2017: 310 · 2016: 292 · 2015: 315 · 2014: 278 · 2013: 253 · 2012: 221
- FWCI
- 88.92
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Structural Equation Modeling A Multidisciplinary Journal (publishedVersion)
- Research Bank (Australian Catholic University) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Australian Research Council
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods and Bayesian Inference
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Distribution Estimation and Applications
- Keywords
- goodness of fit index, cut-off values, model misspecification, type I error, nested models, hypothesis testing, structural equation modeling, model fit assessment
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
