Cited by 1,001Attention Deficit Hyperactivity DisorderNeurotransmitter Receptor Influence on BehaviorGenetic Associations and Epidemiology

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Molecular Genetics of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

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Faraone, Stephen V., Mick, Eric·2010·Psychiatric Clinics of North America

DOI 10.1016/j.psc.2009.12.004PMC PMC2847260

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Abstract

Although twin studies demonstrate that ADHD is a highly heritable condition, molecular genetic studies suggest that the genetic architecture of ADHD is complex. The handful of genome-wide linkage and association scans that have been conducted thus far show divergent findings and are, therefore, not conclusive. Similarly, many of the candidate genes reviewed here (ie, DBH, MAOA, SLC6A2, TPH-2, SLC6A4, CHRNA4, GRIN2A) are theoretically compelling from neurobiological systems perspective but available data are sparse and inconsistent. However, candidate gene studies of ADHD have produced substantial evidence implicating several genes in the etiology of the disorder, with meta-analyses supportive of a role of the genes coding for DRD4, DRD5, SLC6A3, SNAP-25, and HTR1B in the etiology of ADHD.

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Background
Molecular genetics of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
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BackgroundSelf-citation
Multiple dopamine D4 receptor variants in the human population
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Background
Role of Serotonin in the Paradoxical Calming Effect of Psychostimulants on Hyperactivity
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Background
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Background
Meta-analysis of the association between the 7-repeat allele of the dopamine D(4) receptor gene and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.
Faraone, S., Doyle, A., Mick, E., & Biederman, J. (2001) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.158.7.1052 · Cited by 740
Self-citation
Meta-analysis shows significant association between dopamine system genes and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
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“Candidate genes predict only minute increases in ADHD symptomology, highlighting the multifactorial nature of ADHD risk, including the environment (Faraone et al., 2005; Neale et al., 2010).”
Background
Nicotine-induced behavioral sensitization in an adult rat model of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
Watterson, E., Spitzer, A., Watterson, L. R., Brackney, R. J., Zavala, A. R., Olive, M., & Sanabria, F. (2016) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2016.06.050 · Cited by 4
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Background
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Background
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Xu, J., Wang, F., Gao, Y., Qi, C., Chen, T., & Yan, J. J. (2024) · Developmental Neuroscience · doi:10.1159/000542005 · Cited by 2
“Numerous genetic studies have indirectly substantiated the reliability of these systems ’ association with ADHD [46].”
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BackgroundInfluential
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Li, Q., Meng, Y., Wang, J., Xie, Y., Li, T., & Sun, W. (2022) · Frontiers in Genetics · doi:10.3389/fgene.2022.878036 · Cited by 4
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“, the prefrontal and the anterior cyngulate cortex); uneven cerebral blood flow and parasympathetic activity; a genetic background associated with neurotransmitter metabolism (Faraone and Mick, 2010; Tye et al., 2012); and abnormalities in neurotransmitter metabolism involving dopaminergic, adrenergic, serotonergic, a…”
Background
Brain structural and functional substrates of ADGRL3 (latrophilin 3) haplotype in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
Moreno‐Alcázar, A., Ramos‐Quiroga, J. A., Marta Ribasés, A., Sánchez‐Mora, C., Gloria Palomar, A., Bosch, R., Salavert, J., Fortea, L., Monté, G. C., Canales-Rodríguez, E. J., et al. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-81915-z · Cited by 6
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Retzler, J., Retzler, C., Groom, M., Johnson, S., & Cragg, L. (2019) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000590 · Cited by 3
“While ADHD in the general population is by and large recognized as the result of a gene-environment interaction (Faraone et al., 2005), it is thought that the increased risk for inattention in VP children arises as a result of aberrant neurodevelopment due to birth at very preterm gestations…”
Background
Psychiatric Disorders After Attention‐Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Nationwide Population‐Based Study in Taiwan
Huang, Y.-F., Chiou, H., Chung, C.-H., Chien, W.-C., & Chang, H.-J. (2019) · Journal of Nursing Scholarship · doi:10.1111/jnu.12457 · Cited by 3
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Background
The assessment of serum omentin levels of children with autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
Yürümez, E., Uğur, Ç., & Sertçelik, M. (2018) · Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1080/24750573.2017.1421397 · Cited by 3
“Similar to ASD, the aetiology of ADHD is not yet clear [6].”
Background
Refining Diagnostic Procedures for Adults With Symptoms of ADHD
Sibley, M. H., Coxe, S. J., & Molina, B. S. G. (2016) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191116676890 · Cited by 9
“Neuroimaging, genetic, and cognitive developmental research emerged over the next two decades that solidified this understanding (Faraone et al., 2005; Li, Sham, Owen, & He, 2006; Nigg, 2001; Swanson et al., 2000; Yu-Feng et al., 2007).”
Background
Development of Working Memory Training Program for ADHD Children and Effectiveness Verification
Sunjoo, H., Lee, M.-J., Jung, E., Kim, C., & Son, Y. (2015) · Journal of Curriculum and Evaluation · doi:10.29221/jce.2015.18.3.209 · Cited by 3
“ADHD는 유전에 의해 영향을 받고 발병원인이 다양한 아동기 정신장애로(Faraone et al., 2005), 부주의, 과잉행동, 충동성의 세 가지 대표적인 증상을 보인다.”
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Hh, A., Bahar, N., Manveen, K. S., & Salwina, W. I. W. (2015) · InTech eBooks · doi:10.5772/61416 · Cited by 9
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Background
Under-recognised and under-treated: ADHD in adults
Gournay, K. (2015) · doi:10.12968/bjmh.2015.4.2.60 · Cited by 3
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Background
Relationship between ADHD Markers and Self-Perceived Stress: Influences on Academic Performance in Preadolescents
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Method
A family-based association study of dopamine receptor D4 and mental retardation in Qinba region of China.
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Background
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Background
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“Candidate Gene Selection Candidate gene selection was based on two meta-analyses of candidate gene studies in ADHD, as described in Chapter 2 (Faraone et al., 2005; Gizer, Waldman & Ficks, 2009).”
MethodResultInfluential
“Genetics and the Social Behavior of the Dog” Revisited: Searching for Genes Relating to Personality in Dogs
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Background
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Methylphenidate (Ritalin) and Dopamine
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Background
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“[10] Hence, the common candidate genes studied for externalizing disorders were related to DA turnover, availability, and/or metabolism (like DA receptor D2/D4; Catechol-O-methyltransferase [COMT]: COMT; Mono-amine oxidase: MAO genes).[11-13] Other candidate genes studied were related to serotonergic pathway.”
Background
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“Por outro lado, também são referidos fatores de ordem genética e indicam -se resultados que revelam uma maior incidência familiar da problemática nos membros da família imediata e um risco 2 a 8 vezes maior em familiares de 1º grau (Faraone et al., 2005).”
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Franke, A., Konrad, A., Lieb, K., & Huss, M. (2011) · doi:10.1055/s-0031-1273223 · Cited by 2
Facteurs de vulnérabilité génétique des troubles bipolaires
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Trastorno por déficit de atención e hiperactividad
Ortiz, M. A. J., & Rebolledo, F. A. (2021) · Plasticidad y Restauración Neurológica · doi:10.35366/101204 · Cited by 2
“La APP en su reciente guía práctica de manejo del TDAH, recomienda el uso de psicoestimulantes como tratamiento de primera línea en adolescentes con TDAH, seguido por atomoxetina (12,17,21), dado que los beneficios de la terapia farmacológica sobrepasan los efectos adversos (17).”
Background
Brain Serotonergic Tone in Schoolchildren with ADHD through the N1/P2 Component of the Auditory Evoked Potentials
Fernandez-Cruz, M. C., Lara-Pérez, G., Mondragón-Herrera, J. A., Hernández‐Rodríguez, J., & Manjarrez‐Gutiérrez, G. (2020) · Journal of Psychiatry and Mental Health · doi:10.16966/2474-7769.131 · Cited by 3
“Besides a reduction in the SERT capacity, SLC6A2, have also been reported [8].”
Background
Epigenetics of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder
Perroud, N. A., Weibel, S., Aubry, J., & Dayer, A. G. (2016) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-800226-1.00007-1
Aufmerksamkeitsdefizit-/ Hyperaktivitätsstörung (ADHS)
Hohmann, S., Just, M., Döpfner, M., Romanos, M., Banaschewski, T., & Millenet, S. (2017) · Kinder- und Jugendmedizin · doi:10.1055/s-0038-1629396 · Cited by 2
“Etwa 70–80 % der phänotypischen Varianz sind auf genetische Faktoren und ihre Interaktion mit Umweltfaktoren zurückzuführen (18).”
Background
Le trouble déficit de l'attention/hyperactivité : nosographie et perspective développementale
Gaucher, M., & Forget, J. (2014) · La nouvelle revue - Éducation et société inclusives · doi:10.3917/nras.068.0017 · Cited by 2
Estudio comparativo del control inhibitorio y la flexibilidad cognitiva en niños con Trastorno por déficit de atención con hiperactividad
Rubiales, J., Bakker, L., & Urquijo, S. (2013) · Cuadernos de neuropsicología · doi:10.7714/cnps/7.1.203 · Cited by 10
Mothers of Children With ADHD: Does Employment Help?
Merson, E. S., & O'Brien, K. M. (2012) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e648472012-001 · Cited by 2
“Research has supported the strong genetic component of ADHD (e.g., Chronis et al., 2003; Faraone et al., 2005).”
Background
¿Son los estimulantes efectivos en el tratamiento de los déficits de funciones ejecutivas? Resultados de un estudio aleatorizado doble ciego sobre tratamiento con metilfenidato OROS en adultos con trastorno por déficit de atención con hiperactividad
Biederman, J., Mick, E. O., Fried, R. S., Wilner, N., Spencer, T. J., & Faraone, S. V. (2012) · Psiquiatría Biológica · doi:10.1016/j.psiq.2012.02.004 · Cited by 2
Self-citation
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“Furthermore, ADHD is a high heredity disease of about 76% (Faraone et al., 2005).”
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ADHD and intelligence polygenic scores associations with developmental dimensions in children with attention, learning and memory difficulties
Santangelo, A., Ohlei, O., Mareva, S., Brkić, D., Calm Team, Bertram, L., Holmes, J., Astle, D. E., & Baker, K. (2026) · European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-026-03086-4 · Cited by 1
Psychometric Properties of the Greek Version of the ASKAT: Assessing Teachers’ Knowledge and Attitudes Toward ADHD
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“While 58.2% answered correctly, many still held incorrect beliefs, suggesting widespread misinformation (Thapar et al., 2013) and a need for better education on ADHD ’ s causes and characteristics (Faraone et al., 2005).”
Influential
Diagnostic accuracy of miRNAs in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis
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“While evidence indicates genetic factors studies support a significant contribution, with the average heritability estimate of childhood ADHD being 75% (6).”
Animal models of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Diversity and validity
Nehme, S. B. S., Sánchez‐Sarasúa, S., Medrano, M., Bouchatta, O., Bitar, T., Alameddine, A., Galineau, L., Brunault, P., Kerekes, N., Sánchez‐Pérez, A. M., et al. (2025) · Pharmacological Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.pharmr.2025.100108
“184,185 However, the lack of DRD4 prevented the development of hyperactivity induced by neonatal DA depletion, indicating that DRD4 signaling is essential for this behavioral phenotype.”
Exploring Mitochondrial DNA Copy Number in Italian Children with ADHD: Implications for Neurobiological Mechanisms
Citrigno, L., Cerantonio, A., Neri, L., Sebastiani, P., Colanardi, A., Turacchio, G., Beato, T. D., Marziani, B., & Aureli, A. (2025) · Diseases · doi:10.3390/diseases13110378 · Cited by 1
“Multiple factors, from genetic to environmental, can contribute to ADHD onset [10].”
Adult ADHD and Its Familial Associations: Neuropsychological Profiles and Psychiatric Comorbidities
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Genetic and environmental background of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
Misiewicz, P., & Iwanicka, J. (2024) · Pomeranian Journal of Life Sciences · doi:10.21164/pomjlifesci.975 · Cited by 1
Diagnostik und Therapie der ADHS im Erwachsenenalter
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Differential Effects of ADHD Polygenic Risk on Cognitive Performance in Later Life
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Relationship between TPO-Ab with aggressive behavior in major mental disorders
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Molecular Study of STin2 (Intron 2) Variant of the SLC6A4 Gene in Children and Adolescents with Attention-deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Amiri, S., Asadian, M., Khaniani, M. S., Derakhshan, S. M., Rahmani, N. P., Shafiee‐Kandjani, A. R., & Fanid, L. M. (2022) · Iranian Journal of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.5812/ijpbs-122884 · Cited by 2
“It has now been suggested in animal studies that serotonin is involved in hyperactivity, inattention, and impulsive behaviors (5, 21).”
Background
Genetic background of grey matter brain networks related to attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorderPreprint
Schoenmacker, G., Duan, K., Rootes-Murdy, K., Jiang, W., Hoekstra, P. J., Hartman, C. A., Oosterlaan, J., Hoogman, M., Franke, B., Turner, J. A., et al. (2022) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2022.01.07.22268852 · Cited by 1
“Homoeopathic Perspective of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder - Hyperactive Type – A Review”
Gnnanaprakasham, M., Mathew, S., & Mohan, N. (2021) · Journal of Complementary and Alternative Medical Research · doi:10.9734/jocamr/2021/v16i230282 · Cited by 1
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“ADHD and autism have been found to have very high heritabilities which implies that environmental factors, although of importance, are not completely decisive for the prevalence of these conditions [4,5].”
Background
The role of psychosocial adversity in the aetiology and course of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
Gómez-Cano, S., Ospina, J. P. Z., Arcos‐Burgos, M., & Palacio-Ortíz, J. D. (2021) · Revista Colombiana de Psiquiatría · doi:10.1016/j.rcp.2021.02.008 · Cited by 9
Twin Study of the Relationship between Childhood Negative Emotionality and Hyperactivity/Inattention Problems
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“For example, Faraone et al. (2005) found that the mean heritability estimate across 20 twin studies of ADHD symptoms was .76.”
Background
Working Memory and Impulsivity and Artificial Neural NetworksPreprint
Tiitto, M. V., & Lodder, R. A. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.10.26.355990 · Cited by 2
ADHD in adults
Maltezos, S., Whitwell, S., & Asherson, P. (2020) · Oxford Textbook of Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1093/med/9780198757139.003.0034 · Cited by 1
Profile of reading difficulties in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a literature review
de Paula, E. M. S., & Navas, A. L. (2018) · Revista CEFAC · doi:10.1590/1982-021620182064718 · Cited by 8
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a short review
Gill, A., & Bhatt, A. (2016) · International Journal of Advances in Medicine · doi:10.18203/2349-3933.ijam20162495 · Cited by 1
SNAP-25 gene variations and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in Iranian population
Alhosseini, M. Z., Jamshidi, J., Bidoki, A. Z., Ganji, S., Amirabadi, M. R. E., Emamalizadeh, B., Taghavi, S., Shokraeian, P., Mohajerani, F., & Darvish, H. (2016) · Neurological Research · doi:10.1080/01616412.2016.1232548 · Cited by 1
Effect of an Educational program about Attention Deficit Hyper Activity Disorder on Teachers Knowledge and skills in primary schools
zewiel, M. A., Mervat, S., & Elsherif, Z. (2015) · doi:10.21608/tsnj.2015.74254 · Cited by 1
Duplications in ADHD patients harbour neurobehavioural genes that are co‐expressed with genes associated with hyperactivity in the mouse
Taylor, A., Steinberg, J., & Webber, C. (2015) · American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B Neuropsychiatric Genetics · doi:10.1002/ajmg.b.32285 · Cited by 1
“Family and twin studies have estimated that ADHD has high heritability, ~76% [Faraone et al., 2005], but the genetic etiology of”
Background
Initial evidence that polymorphisms in neurotransmitter-regulating genes contribute to being born small for gestational age
Morgan, A., Thompson, J. M. D., Waldie, K., Cornforth, C., Turic, D., Sonuga-Barke, E., Lam, W., Ferguson, L., & Mitchell, E. (2012) · Journal of Pediatric Genetics · doi:10.3233/pge-2012-018 · Cited by 1
Adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and child protection: review of evidence and child safeguarding guidelines
Jeffs, J., Cubbin, S., & Xenitidis, K. (2012) · The Psychiatrist · doi:10.1192/pb.bp.110.033175 · Cited by 1
Preliminary evaluation after setting up a post-assessment attention deficit hyperactivity disorder clinic in a community setting
Damodaran, J., Bourke, M., & Dowling, B. (2011) · Irish Journal of Medical Science (1971 -) · doi:10.1007/s11845-011-0710-8 · Cited by 1
“susceptibility to develop ADHD [7].”
Hoe gaan angst en depressie samen met ADHD?
Scholiers, J. (2010) · Neuropraxis · doi:10.1007/s12474-010-0008-z · Cited by 1
Op zoek naar de biologische basis van adhd: aanwijzingen vanuit cognitie, neuro-imaging, psychofarmacologie en genetica-onderzoek
Durston, S. (2007) · Neuropraxis · doi:10.1007/bf03079116 · Cited by 1
“Zowel dopamine als noradrenaline speelt een belangrijke rol bij het functioneren van de prefrontale cortex (Arnsten, 2000; Goldman-Rakic et al., 2000).”
Background
A retrospective study on professor Gui-Qi Xuan’s experience in traditional Chinese medicine treatment on attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: based on data mining and network pharmacology
Hu, J., Chen, D.-F., Li, F.-F., Chen, N., Ye, C.-L., Yu, K.-P., Xuan, X., Xuan, G.-Q., & Chen, J. (2023) · Life Research · doi:10.53388/lr20230013 · Cited by 1
Relationship between suicidal behavior/self-mutilation and Vitamin B12 and Folic Acid Levels in Adult Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Okutucu, F., & Gok, D. (2023) · Annals of Medical Research · doi:10.5455/annalsmedres.2023.10.291 · Cited by 1
“Although the cause of ADHD is not yet known exactly, some factors such as psychosocial stress, diet, exposure to toxins and heavy metals, structural/functional abnormalities of the brain, neurotransmitter dysregulation in the frontostriatal area play a role in the etiology [7,8,9].”
Background
ADHD: A Neurodevelopmental Disorder
Pallanti, S., & Salerno, L. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-39051-8_2 · Cited by 2
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Darling, A. B. (2020) · The Research Repository @ WVU (West Virginia University) · doi:10.33915/etd.7800 · Cited by 2
“Twin studies suggest that genetic heritability is between 60% and 90% (Faraone & Mick, 2010; Spencer, Biederman, Wilens, & Faraone, 2002; Waldman & Gizer, 2006), with a mean heritability estimated at 75% worldwide (Beiderman & Faraone, 2005; Faraone et al., 2005).”
Background
Genetics and pharmacogenetics of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in childhood and adulthood
Bonvicini, C., Maj, C., & Scassellati, C. (2019) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-813176-3.00021-3 · Cited by 1
Emotion regulation is associated with peer victimization among children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.
Fogleman, N. D. (2019) · ThinkIR: The University of Louisville's Institutional Repository (University of Louisville) · doi:10.18297/etd/3288 · Cited by 1
“…such as ADHD, are associated with neuroanatomical deficits (Shaw et al., 2012), impaired physiological arousal (Musser, Galloway-Long, Frick, & Nigg, 2013), genetic predispositions for urgency traits (Faraone & Mick, 2010), and maladaptive emotion regulation responses (Shaw et al., 2014).”
Background
Norepinephrine transporter methylation profile and association with symptoms of ADHD and in vivo NET expression as measured by PET
Sigurdardottir, H., Kranz, G., Rami-Mark, C., James, G., Vanicek, T., Gryglewski, G., Berroterán-Infante, N., Kautzky, A., Hienert, M., Traub-Weidinger, T., et al. (2019) · European Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2018.11.254 · Cited by 1
Investigation of alexithymia, depression and childhood ADHD symptom levels in parents of children with ADHD
Gules, Z., Aksu, H., & Özgür, B. G. (2018) · doi:10.5455/apd.285569 · Cited by 1
Temperament and Behavior Factors in a Community Sample of Youth with Selective Mutism
Diliberto, R. (2020) · Digital Scholarship - UNLV (University of Nevada Reno) · doi:10.34917/10985854 · Cited by 1
Zebrafish Models of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
Norton, W., Lange, M., Bally‐Cuif, L., & Lesch, K. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-33774-6_7 · Cited by 2
Olfactory functioning in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
Vučinić, D., Kesic, A., Jančić, J., & Jović, N. (2016) · Engrami · doi:10.5937/engrami1601028v · Cited by 1

Authors: Faraone, S. V., & Mick, E.
Affiliations: SUNY Upstate Medical University (US)
Harvard University (US)
Corresponding author: Faraone, Stephen V.
ORCID: Faraone, Stephen V.
Mick, Eric
Venue: Psychiatric Clinics of North America
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2010-03
Volume: 33
Issue: 1
Pages: 159-180
ISSN: 0193-953X (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.psc.2009.12.004
PMC: PMC2847260
OpenAlex: W2168200222
Cited by: 411
References: 170
Citations by year: 2026: 5 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 26 · 2022: 16 · 2021: 20 · 2020: 15 · 2019: 17 · 2018: 24 · 2017: 30 · 2016: 33 · 2015: 32 · 2014: 45 · 2013: 40 · 2012: 39
FWCI: 5.44
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Psychiatric Clinics of North America (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders: National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH066877, R13MH059126)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetic Associations and Epidemiology
Keywords: attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, genetic etiology, heritability, genome-wide linkage analysis, genome-wide association study, candidate genes, DBH, monoamine oxidase A, norepinephrine transporter, serotonin transporter, CHRNA4, GRIN2A, DRD4, DRD5, dopamine transporter, SNAP-25, 5-HT1B receptor, dopamine, monoamine transporters, neurotransmitter systems
MeSH terms: Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity, Humans, Molecular Biology, Twins, Gene Expression, Prevalence, Genome-Wide Association Study

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